Confiscation. — An act for which no provision is made in the Mosaic economy, but authorized in a modified form by Pers. rule, so that a residence might be destroyed ; but no mention is made of the forfeiture or property for the benefit of the State (Ezr 6", Dn 2= 3-='). The act described in Ezr "i^ seems to convey the idea of modem confiscation.
Crucifixion. — See sep. art. CROSS.
Cutting Asunder. — In carrying out the threat as recorded in Dn 2^ and 3'-''', the body might be cut in more than two pieces. The verb used in Mt 24", Lk 12*', is S'xtnotulv, which in its etymology signifies severing in two parts.
Cutting oflP from the People (i'?;?, n"?i,'p nij, '3,* LXX ^f dXoflpet/oi). — A term used in Gn 17" as penalty for neglect of circumcision, and in the law to be employed as a punisliment for certain breaches (1) in morals, (2) in the Abrahamic cove- nant, and (3) in the Levitical ritual. For immor- ality such as filial irreverence, incest, and unclean connexions, the offender, in at least seven cases, was unquestionably exposed to death (Lv 18^ 20'""). In like manner he who does aught pre- sumptuously (RV 'with a high hand'), that is, wilful sin in general, was liable (Nu IS*"'*'). In the breach of the covenant it may be doubted whether the extreme penalty of death was invariably inflicted, as in Ex 30=», Lv 2321- *>, and Nu 9". There are instances where the punishment for offences that were kindred to such as are expressly designated as a breach of ritual, meant death. Such are the cases of (1) Nadaband Abihu (Lv 10'- -) ; (2) Korah, Dathan, and Abiram (Nu 16^). These ' perished from the congregation ' (see Nu 12'^, in which it is stated that Miriam, for leprosy, was ' as one dead ' in her temporary exclusion). The punishment in general seems so severe that it has been sug- gested that it was possibly voidable either by an elaborate atonement on the offender's part (Nu IS"'"), or by a divine commutation, the penalty being recorded but not executed. In some in- st^inccs it meant, perhaps, only deprivation of cftrtain civil and social privileges. There are two such cases : ( 1 ) when the people ate of the blood in one of Saul's campaigns (1 S 14'*); (2) when king Uzziah offered incense (2 Ch 26"'- »>). On the other hand, in Ex SI''"- the meaning of the penalty as attached bo Sabbath-breaking is interpreted as death. t
• The plural 0*py apparently means 'kinsfolk,' 'relatives.' so that 'rut off from his (their) people* ia a better renderin^f tlian ' from the people.'
tit may be questioned whether, when 'cut off from his people ' stands alone, anythint; more is intended than to express Btronplv the di\ine diwmpproval under threat of excommunica- tion. Ct. '/willcutoff,' LV1710 203 » "(all Ill,and8eeNowack, Beb. Arck.i.ias t. uid Dillm. on On 17>«. I
Divine Yiaitation. — In the theocratic economy there were certain sins for which the nation at large suffered. The punishment was considered as inflicted by the divine hand, the visitation itself being manifestly due to no human in- strumentality, though man was sometimes the executioner of God's will. Divine condemnation was executed against idolatry. Sabbath-breaking, ojipression of the poor, covetousness, and other sins w hich betokened a rebellious or unholy spirit, or for which an individual could not obtain redress. Human agencies might be employed in the admin- istration of the penalty, but God Himself was regarded as the avenger of the wron". He it was who led the people, for their wickedness, into captivity (Ezr 9', Jer 15-, Am ^*), threatened them with the curse (Dt 28""^, Jer 24'-'), with consump- tion and fever (Lv 26'*), and inflammation and fiery heat (Dt 28-^), caused the drought (Dt 11" 2S='-2^, Is 5s, Jer 14'' 5tf«, Hag l'"-"), and famine (Lv 26"«, Jer 24'" 34''", Rev 6»), kindled a consuming fire (Dt4=^, Is 66'", He 12^), showed His indignation by hail and tempest (Is 30*", Hag 2"), inflicted pestilence and plague (Ezk 6" 7"), exposed to the taunt of proverb and reproach (Dt 28", 2 Ch 7*", Jer •24"'), smote with scourge (Is 10=»28'»-"), and with the sword in the hands of enemies, as shown in so many passages that the reader may consult a concordance for a complete view of these and all other providential punishments named. His dis- pleasure at Korah was shown by the earthquake (Nu IG*"). Idolatry was punished by captivity. Delay of justice provoked war. Perjury invited wild "beasts. Neglect of tithes was attended with drought and famine (Schiirer, HJP II. ii. 91).
Drowning was not distinctively a Jewish punish- ment. It was the penalty in "Babylonia for tlie wife who repudiated her husband (Encyc. Brit. art. 'Babylonia ). Jerome, however, says that oflendtrs were thus sometimes put to death among the Jew-' as well as among the Romans. There is an allusion to this mode of dying in Mt 18', Mk 9". Jos. {Ant. XIV. XV. 10) states that some Galileans revolted and drowned the partisans of Herod.
Exposure to Wild Beasts. — Daniel and his enemies were cast into a den of lions (Dn 6), and the practice of thus dealing with offenders is said to be still in vogue in Fez and Morocco. In the use of a strong figure in Mic 4" human beings are repre- sented as being gored or trodden by beasts. The lion from whom St. Paul was said to be delivered (2 Ti 4") undoubtedly means Nero. No conclusive exegesis has been given of 1 Co 15'^. Many are of the opinion that human foes are described, but there is some plausible argument in favour of the literal view. 'The inroads of wild animals, as by an act of God, are to be regarded as a punishment of Israel for unfaithfulness (Lv 26=2, Dt 32«, 2 K 17^). The disobedient prophet, named Jadon according to Jos. (Ant. VIII. ix. 1), met death from God by a lion (1 K 13*). Contrariwise, the righteous are protected (Job 5P, Hos 2"*).