however, are few in number, and appear either to be irrelevant (e.g. Lk 12^'- **, wliere the question is, not the duration of the judicial awards, but their adjustment to difFerent degrees of wrong), on to suggest the opposite conclusion {e.g. Mt 5-*- *, Lk 12* *, where tlie idea seems to be tliat of a liability that cannot be discliarged, and a justice that is in- exorable ; Mt 12»>- *», Mk 3-» =», Lk 12'", where tlie terms appear to be exclusive terms, expressing tlie irreiiiediableness of the condition, the fact that there can be no forgiveness at any period for the sin in question). It is urged, too, but on grounds open to challenge, that the distinctive terms ' eternal ' (a/iinot) and 'punishment' (ic4X<i<ris) may have in this connexion other than their usual and obvious applications. But, on the other hand, the finality of destiny appears to be expressed unmistakably and in many different forms — in the words with which at the close of the great eschatological dis- course the moral issues of life are summed up (Mt 25"), in such contrasts as that between the ' kingdom prepared from the foundation of the world ' and ' the eternal fire which is prepared for the devil and his angels '( Mt 25*' ) ; in the statements of the issues of God's kingdom and of man's life given in the parables {e.g. Mt IS*"-*"- "•*•) ; in the figures of 'the unquenchable fire' (Mk 9"), the •worm' that 'dieth not' (Mk 9«), tlie salting with fire (Mk 9"), and the like; in the many other terms of solemn moment by which the final lot of the unworthy is described — banishment from Christ (Mt 7"-^), rejection (Mt 10^, Lk 9^), the loss of tlie soul or the life (Mk S"), dying in one's sins (Jn 8-'**), perishing (Jn 3"), being judged already (Jn 3"), its being good never to have been born (Mt 26**, Mk 14='), etc. These sayings are to be understood in the light of the beliefs which prevailed among the Jews on the nature and the duration of the retribution of the wicked. Tliese are by no means easy to determine, as they varied at different periods and in different schools. Yet the general condition of opinion in our Lord's time and in tlie immediately preceding period can be stated with approximate certainty. The Je^^•ish books relevant to the question contain little to bear out any large belief in the final restoration of all. They often use terms — death, perdition, destruction, and the like, which might be taken to point to annihilation as the final lot of the wicked, if interpreted apart from the old popular ideas of Sheol {e.g. Ps.Sol 3" 9» 12« 13'» 15"; cf. 2 Es 7* S"-^^ Apoc. Bar 30). But in many cases the language is definitely ex- pressive of the finality of the retribution {e.g. Jth 16", 4 Mac 9«», Enoch 5»-« 10"-" 12»-» 22<-'' 27»- • etc. ). The schools of H illel and Shammai, too, seem both to have tauglit, though in different ways, the immediate sealing of certain classes of sinners to Gehenna, or their puni-sliment there to ' ages of ages.' It would appear, therefore, that in Christ's time, with certain variations and excejitions, the belief was general in an enduring penalty in the other world for the absolutely evil— unrighteous Gentiles, guilty and apostate Jews. Christ's eschatology is one of grace. His doctrine is a revelation of life. But it throws into strong relief the responsibilities of the present existence, the certainty of the retribution of sin, the possibility of an eternal sin (Mk 3-'") witli an eternal penalty. II. The Apostolic E.schatolooy. — Under tliis title we include the eschatological ideas and truths delivered in the various groups of NT writings outside the evangelical records of Christ's own words. Taking each writer separately, we have to ascertain what contribution ho makes to the e.scha- tolopical system, in what relation it stands to Clinst's doctrine, in what sense it is in harmony with that, in what degree it is supplementary. There are questions of literary criticism connected
VOL. I. — 48
with not a few of the wTitings, questions both of genuineness and of integrity. Into these it is not necessary to enter liere. In increasing measure these writings are bein^ lifted above the uncertain- ties of criticism. It is enough for our present purpose to take them as representatives of different types of NT doctrine, earlier and later. "Their ideas exhibit certain characteristic differences in form in the different groups. They bear the impress of the beliefs, opinions, and ways of speech that were current among the Jews of the time. They have obvious points of affinity with the ideas of the OT. They stand in a special relation, of dependence and agreement, to Christ's doctrine.
The Epistle of James, a notable product of primitive Je^vish Christianity, says comparatively little on the things of the end. It speaks most definitely of the Parousia, of that as an event nigh at hand, and as liaWng judgment Eussociated with it (5*). It speaks also of a Kingdom that is pro- mised (2*) ; of a Judge who ' standeth at the door ' (5') ; of a judgment that will be according to character and responsibility (2" 3') ; of recom- penses for the tried and proved (1'*), and retri- butions for the oppressive rich (5'- *• ') ; of a penalty which appears to be eternal (S"*.