Socrates only expresses more definitely and in simpler terms the theory of the older poets: one God rules all for the best. He expresses no dis- belief in the other gods, and often uses the plural Geot ; but they are not an important element, and he never, so far as our accounts go, expressed any opinion about their relation to the great God. Plato regards the common religion as the exoteric form of a deeper truth; it is generally mythical, i.é. it expresses in sensuous language spiritual truths. This exoteric religion is proper for the education of children, and necessary for those who cannot rise to understand the reality pictured to them in the tales of the gods. But the popular mythology must be purified: it is full of hateful and false tales which have crept in through the influence of poets and corrupted the genuine myths.
Aristotle has the same view. Polytheism is a State-engine for education. On the other hand, he sometimes tries to connect it with his system, by placing the gods in the stars; but the subject gets little notice from him.
Aristotle was the last purely Hellenic philoso- pher; Greek thought had now run its course. With the victorious march of Alexander, Greek civilization went forth to conquer the East; and Greek thought was now brought directly in con- tact with Oriental religion, and particularly with the genuine monotheism of the Hebrews. The Greek contempt for barbarians gradually dis- appeared before the actual experience of a religion greater than their own; while the narrowness of the Jews recognized the high character of Greek philosophy. In the last centuries before Christ, constant attempts were made on both sides to unite Hebrew and Greek thought into one system. The doctrine of angels and devils, which was mixed up (in later times) with the Hebrew mono- theistic belief, was assimilated with the Greek polytheism. The gods who surrounded Zeus be- came daimones who interposed between God and the world and bridged over the gulf between the infinite and the finite. The idea became common that all men are the children of God; that the true service of God lay, not in the cult-observances
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of any particular religion, but in a virtuous life ; and that a priesthood to mediate between man and God was needless and wrong. The ddyos of Hera- clitus and of Plato became in the Jewish school of Alexandria the Divine Word which is the bearer of all Divine power. Most of these attempts at a union of Hellenic and Jewish thought ended in an ascetic system ; for all aimed at combining the two by dropping elements from each. In Chris- tianity alone both find their completion and per- fection, without loss of any of their true character.
Stoicism was the most remarkable Greek attempt to produce a synthesis of Hellenic and Oriental thought. It was to a great extent a religion, but it was an artificial religion with none of the vigour of natural unconscious life. As Zeller says, the whole Stoic view of the world was founded on the idea of one Divine being, father of all, containing and sustaining all, ruling all, manifest everywhere. God was to the Stoics the beginning and the end of the world’s development. Virtuous action con- sists in fulfilling the Divine will and law. The true philosopher is sufficient for himself, master of his fate, above all surrounding circumstances, perfectly happy in his own knowledge, lord of all things, a true king—and a self-satisfied prig. As all men stand in the same relation to God, all men are brothers.
In its theoretic character Stoicism was wholly careless of and uninfluenced by the popular religion. But in practice the Stoic philosophers inculcated acquiescence in the religion which was accepted by common opinion and a restraint on the passions of the common people. They spoke with contempt of many points in the popular faith, the temples, the images, the fables ; but they found real germs of truth in it, and thought these sufficient to justify its continuation.
Better almost than in any other writer we may see in Horace the effect of these religious philoso- phies on the world of Greece and Rome. To think and reason about conduct and good action and wisdom is his only religion. The gods to him are little more than names and fables. When he supported the attempt of Augustus to re-create the old religious cults, the poet and the emperor were alike urged on by the feeling that religion was a political and social machine so useful as to be indispensable to good government.
Il. THE ATTITUDE oF Sr. PAUL To GREEK PHILOSOPHY.—In this brief, imperfect outline of the religious side of Greek literature—a subject which calls for a much more serious and systematic treatment than it has ever received—it has been shown how clearly the Greek thinkers conceived the problem, and how lofty was the plane on which they pitched their thoughts; but we have refrained from dwelling on their weaknesses and errors. But naturally St. Paul, who frequently alludes in very disparaging terms to the Sophia of the world, was most keenly sensible of its faults and imperfec- tions. Three characteristics seem to have specially offended him.
In the first place, its method was shallow; it frequently offered irrational ‘fables and endless genealogies’ (1 Ti 14) in place of real attempts to grapple with the problems, and was quite content with these pseudo-solutions: those genealogical explanations, not unknown even to the deepest Greek thinkers (as in A‘schylus, Agam. 738 ft.), became more frequent in the later period, and were applied in all departments of pseudo-research, geographical, historical,* ete.