*The ‘Labartu’ Zeitschrift fur Assyr. xvi. p. 190f.
+ No fewer than six distinct series are now known, distin- guished by the following names :—1. Maklu, edited by Knudtzon ; 3, Shurpu, ‘Burning,’ ed. by Zimmern, Bettrdge zw Kenntnis der Babylonischen Religion, i., Leipzig, 1896; 3. Labartu, ed. by Myhrman, Ztschr. fiir Assyr. xvi. 141-200; 4. Utukku limnuti, ‘Evil Demons,’ published in Cuneiform Teats from Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, part xvi. with supplements in part xvii., London, 1903; 5. Ti’u, ‘Head sick- ness’; and 6, Ashakku marsu, ‘ Ashakku sickness.’ The two last named are published in Cuneiform Texts, part xvii. The last three are transliterated and translated by Thompson in Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia, vols. i. and ii, (London,
1903). it an the equivalent Hebrew term ’ashsha@p (Dn 120 22),
series, See Myhrman,
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the incantations rested, and the ceremonies con- nected with the incantations, continued to exer- cise a strong hold on the people, and constituted, in fact, one of the main factors of the religion itself, viewed from the side of religious practice.
4, Omens and oracles.—Inseparably linked to the beliefs on which the incantation texts and rituals rest, is a second branch of the religious literature of the Babylonians and Assyrians. While, as we have seen, the view gradually arose which attvri- buted the small ills and minor worries and mis- fortunes of existence to the mischievous workings of evilly disposed demons, whereas the gods were regarded as, on the whole, favourably inclined, it was the gods with whom the control of the fate of the individual, as of the nation, in the final instance rested. To the gods, therefore, the appeal was made for relief from the sufferings caused by demons or witches; and it was of vital importance, even when the skies seemed serene, to retain the favour and goodwill of the gods, so as to be sure of their assistance when clouds appeared on the horizon. Moreover, the faith in the goodness of the gods was not so strong as to engender a feeling of absolute security in their wor- shippers. On the contrary, it was felt that their favour could easily be turned into hostility, and their favourable disposition towards man did not prevent them from manifesting their displeasure at any slight provocation. Failure to bring the proper homage, entering upon an important under- taking without assuring oneself of the support of the deity, or without making certain that it was begun at the proper moment, or even choosing the wrong formulas in an incantation ritual,—these and other errors might be fraught with disastrous consequences. Again, even after the incantation rites had been performed, the prayers recited, the sacrifices brought, the symbolical ceremonies carried out, it was necessary to know whether the hoped-for relief would be forthcoming.
To keep the gods favourably disposed, and to determine if possible what help they would grant, were two goals that the worshipper in Babylonia and Assyria was ever compelled to hold before him. Preventive measures were therefore called for, as well as remedial efforts. Punctiliousness in carrying out prescribed rites was an important element in such measures, but by no means the only one; it was equally important to ascertain in some direct way the will of the gods and their future intentions. If happily one could forestall the future, then all fears might be dissipated, and, at all events, one would not be overwhelmed by an unexpected check to one’s endeavours. Naturally, the occasions when, through the mediation of the priests, oracles were sought, were chiefly such as concerned the general weal. The individual came in for his share, but that share, judging from the specimens of the oracle literature that have been preserved, was a small one in comparison with the part played by matters of public concern. Most notable among these specimens is a group of prayers addressed to the sun-god,* dating from the reigns of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal. They have reference to expeditions undertaken against a group of nations to the north-east of Assyria known as the Kashtariti, who at various times, abetted by other tribes and peoples settled in their vicinity, appear to have given the Assyrians con- siderable trouble. The interesting feature of these prayers is the pattern according to which they are arranged—a pattern which points to the develop- ment of a fixed ritual prescribed for such occa- sions. Each prayer may be subdivided into five
* Published by J. A. Knudtzon, Assyrische Gebete an den Sonnengott (Leipzig, 1893).
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parts, consisting (1) of a question or a series of questions addressed to the sun-god ; (2) an appeal to the god not to manifest anger, and to forgive errors unwittingly committed in the sacrificial rites that accompany the appeal ; (3) a repetition of the question or questions, generally in a some- what varying form; (4) a second appeal; and, finally, (5) an examination of the omens to be derived from the inspection of the sacrificed animals.
As in the case of the incantation rituals, the greatest possible care had to be observed in the performance of details. The sacrificial animal— generally a lamb—had to be guarded against all impurities. It must be physically sound, and before passing on to the inspection of the organs— upon the position, proportions, and character of which, together with any possible peculiarities, much depended—the priest was obliged to exercise almost innumerable precautions against interfer- ence with a trustworthy interpretation. He had to don the proper dress, guard himself against any kind of impurity; he had to assume the right position in making the inspection, which itself had to proceed in a certain order ; he had to speak the proper words, and much more of the like. In the questions that he asks, likewise, all contin- gencies are to be taken into consideration, and the ritual indicates all the various marks and symptoms that should be sought for in the organs of the sacrificial animal. A few extracts from one of these prayers will serve as an illustration of the general character of these oracles. The priest, who throughout the ritual acts as mediator, ad- dresses the sun-god—