LiTKRATiTRE.— Cremer, Bib.-Theol. Lexicon, s.vv.; H. Holtz- mann, Lehrbxich der Xeutest. TheologieA. p. 436; commentaries of Alford, Meyer, etc. ; Beyechlag, NT Theol. i. pp. 68ff., 242, ii. p. 48 ; Dorner, Development of the Doctrine o/ the Person of Chritt, Div. I. vol. i. p. 63 ff. ; Reuss, Christian Theohgp in the Apostolic Aye, i. p. 162, ii. p. 416ff.; Delitzsch, Commentary on the Psalms, ad loc. H. H. CUKRIE.
R. — Though beggars are seldom spoken of in the Gospel narratives (Mt 20»'-" ; cf. iNIk 10«-", Lk 18*>-", Jn 9'-", and Lk 16'9-3» parable of Kicli Man and Lazarus), they undoubtedly formed a considerable class in the Gospel age.* This is
hand, the verbs Tfe^x.Tii, (Mk 1CH6, Lk 1«^), iTwri* (Lk 16»), and
e\'ident both from the references to almsgiving in the Sermon on the Mount and from tlie mention of beggars in connexion with places of a public character: the entrance to Jericho (Mt 20™ and parallels), a city through which so many pilgrims went at festival seasons, the neighlxiurhood of rich men's houses (Lk 16-"), and the gates of the temple (Ac 3=).
The prevalence of the beggar class was due to various causes besides indolence — to the want of any system of poor relief, to the ignorance of proper medical remedies for common diseases like ophthalmia, and to the impoverishment of Pales- tine under the Romans owing to cruel and excessive taxation. (F"or the last, see Hausrath, History of NT Times, vol. i. 188 [Eng. tr., Williams & Norgate]). Edersheim thinks that the beggar's appeal for alms may have been enforced by some such cry as 'Gain merit by me,' ' O tender-hearted, by me gain merit, to thine own benefit' (Life and Times of Jesus, vol. ii. 178). It is worthy of notice, however, that no beggar is recorded to have en- forced his appeal to Christ by any reference to the merit to be gained by a favourable response to his ajipeal (though it must be remembered, on the other hand, that the appeal of a blind beggar to one who had power to restore his si"ht would naturally differ from his attitude to those from whom he merely sought an alms). It is also observable that the begging ' saint ' of Moham- medan countries is not found in the Gospels.
The remark of the unjust steward in the parable (Lk 16') — 'To beg I am ashamed' — favours the conclusion that begging, under any circumstances, was regarded as an unfortunate mode of existence, and, in the case of the indolent, was condemned as strongly by public opinion as it was in the days of Jesus the son of Sirach (Sir 40"-*"^).
LiTERATUEE.— The standard Lives of Christ ; G. M. Mackie'a Eibte Manners and Customs; The Jewish Encyclopedia, s.v. ; cf. Day's Social Life of the Hebrews.
MORI.SON BRYCE.
BELIEF.— Belief is the mental action, condition, or habit of trusting in or confiding in a person or a tiling. Trust, confidence, reliance, dependence, faith are from this point of \'iew aspects of belief. Jlore narrowly considered, belief is the mental acceptance of a proposition, statement, or fact on the testimony of another, or on the ground of authority. Tflie fact may be beyond our observa- tion, or the statement beyond our powers of verifi- cation, j-et we may believe that Britain is an island though we may never have sailed round it, and we may believe in the law of gravitation though we may not be able to follow the reasoning which proves it.
This is not the place to deal with all the phases or aspects of belief, or to trace the history of opinion on the question. It is an interesting chapter in the history of human thought, and it is of the highest importance in its practical reference. But we may only indicate the main outline of it in both respects. The contributions towards the right understanding of the province and character of belief in more recent j-ears have been of great value. Recent psychology has become aware of the magnitude and complexity of the problem, and in the hands of such writers as Bain, James, Stout, Baldwin, and other.s it has received a treatment which may be described as adequate. Nor should we omit the name of Dr. James Ward, whose work in this relation is of the highest merit. These have endeavoured to mark
the noun iptntirr,; (Jn 98 Revised Text) ; on the other, the adj. ^Tuxx (Lk 1620 22). In the former case the root idea U that of asking («;Tfa»), wlule irrux^^ suggests the cringing or crouching (■TTiTirti) of a beggar. But t™j;»,- is the ordinary NT word for ' poor,' whether in the sense of needy (Mt 1921) or humble (Mt 6').
BELIEF
BELIEF
185
off the lield of belief, and to distinguish it from other mental states. Is it active or passive ? Is it a state of mind which belongs to the sphere of feeling ? or is it a state of mind whicli belongs to in- telligence? or is it something which belongs to tlie sphere of action ? and is it a result of the ' will to l)e- lieve ' ? Weighty names may be adduced in favour of each of these views. But before the question is asked to wliat sphere of human nature belief is to be assigned, there is a jirevious question to be settled. Are we to give the name of belief to every mental state which relates to an object? Is every state of consciousness which arises in response to a stimulus and in relation to an object to be described as a state of belief ? Can we say we believe in our sensations as we say we believe in our reasoned conclusions? The state of the question may be set forth most vividly in two characteristic descriptions of the nature of belief. Hume says : ' A belief may be most accurately described as a lively idea related to or associated with a present impression.' Professor Stout says : ' All belief involves objective control of subjective activity' (Manual of Psijchologi/, ii. 544).