The sincere emphasis laid on the proper Divinity of Christ throughout the Middle Ages has been continued in the Churches of the Reformation. The opposition has been correspondingly sincere and continuous. Its course manifests remarkable variation. In the earlier stages it was determined chiefly by the common study of the Scriptures now distributed to the multitudes. Almost every phase of former heresy was reproduced, but without real advance in thought or real influence on orthodox opinion. Afterwards the special developments of Reformed theology, notably in the doctrme of the Atonement, created, both by natural evolution and by reaction, the powerful contrary movement of Socinianis^m. The Socinian argument, assuming that tlie Infinite and the finite are exclusive of each other, maintained the Incarnation to be im- possible, rejected the pre-existence, resurrection, and ascension of Christ, asserted the essential moment of His person to be His human nature, rendered free from sin by the Virgin-birth, and free from ignorance by special endowments of knowledge. Socinians did good service by bring- ing into clear relief the Docetic elements in the traditional doctrine, and in preparing for a deeper appreciation of the humanity of Christ in the work 01 salvation. The reverent recognition of this last (finitum capax infiniti), that the human is capable of bodying forth the essence of the Divine nature as distinct from merely being the bearer of the Divine attributes, is the greatest step that has been taken since the Nieene definitions. It has incited to a speculative ardour, and secured a place for the application of scientific method, in dealing with the contents of Christian thought, that are rapidly working out its complete reorganization and reconstruction. To discern and describe the ideal unity of the higher spiritual life which will exhibit the Divine-human principle of Christ's Person in its fulness, is tlie task of the modern
Church. The spiritual potentialities of the human mind are earnestly and perseveringly investigated. It is a complex process, building as largely on religious induction as on religious insight, and sustained by a magnificent confidence in the native powers of reason and conscience. But tlie same forces which have impelled to new Christological affirmation have infused new vigour into Christo- logical doubt. The representatives of Unitai-ianism have been active and influential. They stand for a much more humanitarian view of Christ than either Arians or Socinians. But their phrase, ' the pure humanity of Jesus,' covers much diversity of con- viction. Some are almost Trinitarians, approach- ing Christ on the Divine side, and affirming, in a real if unorthodox sense, His pre-existence, unique- ness, sinlessnesa, and spiritual authority. Others contemplate the human side, believe that He was naturally born, and endowed witli qualities and gifts diflering in degree and not in kind from those which all men enjoy ; that His character was a growth, and that by degrees He rose out of tempta- tion and error into the serene strength of a pure and noble manhood ; tliat He became a provi- dential teacher and leader of men to a higher spiritual development. The Unitarian polemic killed popular Calvinism ; in its higher forms it is rich in ethical appeal.
(b) Failure. — Unitarianism has at all times failed to lead. It has uniformly won a certain measure of popularity by successfully representing the dominant forces pulsating in the spirit of the age. But it is by not being an average that a man becomes a guide. Deniers of the Divinity have flourished in times of utter confusion, when whoever would attain some coherence of life and thought must let drop much that is held in solu- tion, and show the path of progress by manifest- ing the direction of change. By this law Catholic tlieology has stood ; to representative insight it has added prophetic foresight. The sense of its insufficiency, when brought home, has only driven it the deeper into the inner secrets of that experi- ence which yielded its original impulse, and so it has escaped becoming a prey to the narrower reason and limited emotion of the Unitarian schools. See also art. INCARNATION.
Literature.— Besides the works mentioned in tlie body ot the article, (1) for tlie history of the doctrine the following are to be consulted : Dorner, Doctrine of the Person of Christ ; Harnack, Hist, of Dogma ; A. R6ville, Hist, of the Dogma of the Deity of Jesus Christ ; Hagenbach, Hist, of Doctrines ; Macarius, Thi'ol. dogmatiqtie orthodoxe ; Hefele, Hist, of the Councils.
(2) For the dogmatic aspects of the subject the older manuals of Systematic Theology are still of value, e.g. Shedd, Dogmatic Theology ; Dorner, System of Christian Doctrine ; Martensen, Christian Dogmatics ; cf. also Wilberforce, Doctrine of the Incarnation ; Dale, Christian Doctrine ; Gore, The Incarna- tion ; Strong, Manual of Theology ; and, for a more popular treatment, Liddon, Divinity of our Lord ; Eck, Incarnation. Of recent standpoint are Nitzsch, Evangel. Dogmatik ; Clarke, Outline of Christ. Theol. ; Denney, Studies in Theology ; Hodg- son, Theologia Pectoris ; Bovon, Dogmatique ChrHienne, and Thiol, du NT; Fairbairn, Christ in Modem Theology; Powell, Principle of the Incarnation ; H. Holtzmann, Lehrb. der XT Theologie.
(3) For the historical data of Christ's ministry, works, teach- ing, etc., see the numerous Lives of Christ, e.g. by Weiss, Beyschlag, Keim, Eenan, O. Holtzmann, H. von Soden, Sanday, Farrar, Stalker ; G. Matheson, Studies in Portrait of Christ. Shorter dissertations on particular points form a large litera- ture. Of special interest are those which attempt to define the primitive conception of Christ, Such as Wrede's Das Mfssias- qeheimniss in den ErnnqcHcn ; Stanton's Mi'!.:iiah ; II. \on Soden's Urchristl. Literatuni.'sch.- I'tifi.l.ri-i's r/,.- Eurh, Chris. tian Conception of Christ: S.-hmioders llniiptim:!'!: iif der Leben-Jem Forschung : Estliii Carnenli-r's l-'irsl Thn-,' '.'vsju'ls; Mackintosh's Natural Histuni „nii.' Clirislian luliai.^ii.