ig) Angelology.—'the NT belief with regard to angels is taken over almost entire from the later phases of Judaism. Angels are innumerable (Mt 26^, Lk 2'^), and glorious in appearance (Mt 28^, Lk 2' ; cf. Sd^ai 2 P 2i») ; they minister to God's people (Mt 21* 4", Lk 22^*)^ and carry the saints to Paradise (Lk 16-). As Jahweh, in the OT, was surrounded by them, so the Son of Man will be accompanied by them at His Parousia (Mt 16" 25*') ; and they are charged with duties connected with the Last Day (Mt 13"- " 24*'). In OT and NT alike only two angelic names are recorded, Michael and Gabriel (Dn 10'*- =' 8'« 9=', Jude', Rev 12', Lk l'5-2«). Satan is an individual being (Mk 1'*, Lk 10'*). In a few points Christian concep- tions show an advance upon the Jewish. In the Book of Daniel angels are guardians or patrons of particular countries (lO'*- f- -\ 12') ; in Mt 18'" they appear to be guardians of individual human beings, especially of children. Satan is attended by a company of angels (Mt 25^', Rev 12'), an idea not found in earlier writings. Angels are spirits ( He 1'''). Christ, and men in union with Him, are better than angels (He 2*, 1 Co 6*).
(h) Scripture. — This has been placed at the end, and not at the beginning, of the series, because the growth of Christianity out of the religion of Israel would remain a fact even if all the Jewish records had been destroyed. But it is true that the posses- sion of, and devotion to, the OT Scriptures had an enormous effect on the formation of Christian thought and teaching and phraseology. The direct quotations from the OT in the NT are very many ; and there are, besides, a mass of more or less distinct allusions and reminiscences which must be studied in their OT context if their meaning in the NT is to be understood. See artt. Old Testa- ment, and Quotations.
LiTRRATrRB.— In addition to the works on OT Theology and on the Life of Christ, the following are among the more useful English works which are easily obtainable. They are arranged according to the sections in the article —
1. Sanday-Headlam, Romans, on chs. 9-11.
2. (a) Gore, Bampton Lectures ; Illingworth, do. ; Gibson, The Thirty-nine Articles, vol. i. 91-118 ; E. Caird, The Evolu-
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tion of Religion. The doctrine of God from the Jewish side 19 treated in Montefiore's Hibbert Lectures.
\b) Westcott, Hebrews, 298-302 ; Candlish, Expos. Times, 1892 (Oct. -Nov.).
(c) Hort, Jndaistic ChristianiUj ; M'Giffert, History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age ; Bruce, The Kingdom of God, and Si. Paul's Conception of Christianity ; Sand.-Headl., Romans, 187 SS. , _,
(ri) Cave, The Scriptural Doctrine of Sacrifice ; Maurice, The Doctrine of Sacrifice ; Milligan, The Ascension and Heavenly Priesthood of our Lord; Westcott, Hebrews; Sand.-Headl., Romans, 91 f. ; Driver, Deuteronomy, note on 133, 425 f.
(e) (f) Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah ; Drummond, The Jewish Messiah ; Stanton, The Jewish aiul the Christian Messiah ; Dalman, The Words of Jesus (Eng. tr.) ; Driver-Neubauer, The Jetoish Interpreters of Is. llii. ; Charles, Eschatologv Hebretv Jewish and Christian ; Salmond, The Chrisliari Doctrine of Immortality ; Thackeray, The Relation of St. Paul to Contemporary Jewish Thought; Enoch (ed. Charles) ; Psalms of Solomon (ed. Ryle-James).
(a) Fuller, Excursus on ' Angelology and Demonology,' in Speaker's Apocrypha, vol. i. ; Comm. on Dan., Zech., and Revelation.
(A) See art. Septitaqint with the literature there.
Besides the above, a mass of useful information is contained in the following articles in Hastings' DJS :—' Israel," 'God,' 'Jesus Christ,' 'Covenant,' ' Law (in N.T.),' 'Sacrifice,' 'Atone- ment,' 'Messiah,' ' Eschatology,' 'Resurrection,' 'Angel,' 'Satan,' 'Development of Doctrine ' (Extra Vol.)
A. H. M'Neile.
ISSUE OF BLOOD.^One peculiarly distressing case of this ailment is mentioned in the Gospels (Mt 9-° ai|aof>/)ooG(ra, Mk 5^, and Lk 8^^ ovaa iv 'fiaei aifiaTos). Tlie description indicates a very severe and obstinate form of uterine htemorrhage possibly arising from internal growth, for the patient had sulFered many things of many physicians and only grew worse for the treatment ; and she had en- dured the complaint for twelve years. The malady was in general regarded as incurable by medical treatment, and was handed over to be dealt with by magic charms and amulets. Its painful char- acter, apart from its enfeebling and prostrating eftects, was increased by the fact that it involved a rigorous isolation from society, and was looked upon with particular horror. All female dis- charges, even the normal monthly occurrences, were peculiarly repugnant to the Semitic mind, and came under the cycle of custom and legislation to which the Polynesian term taboo has been ap- plied. The terror arose from the dread of super- natural penalties and of malignant agencies which were supposed to emanate from women at such times. Supernatural powers were believed to reside in the blood of the menses, on account of which it was itself held to be efficacious as a charm. The idea may have been modified before NT times, and yet would remain at least as a vague undefined repugnance and fear (see W. R. Smith, RS, Note on ' Holiness, Uncleanness, and Taboo '). The sufi'erer would further be compelled to perpetual celibacy.