In Western Catholicism the doctrine of justifica- tion remains substantially that of Augustine. The Roman Catholic doctrine was finally formulated in opposition to Protestantism at the Council of Trent. It is necessary to refer to two points only. The first is that, in the Middle Ages, Duns Scotus taught a modification of the Augustinian doctrine, which makes still wder room for the idea of merit. He avails himself of a distinction already found in Thomas Aquinas between merit of congruity (meritum de congruo) and condign merit (meritiim de condiqno). The former is based upon the idea of the fiivine equity, to which it is congruous to reward every one who works according to his power after the excellency of the Divine power. The latter is based on the idea of strict justice, which rewards according to desert (Seeberg, l.r. ii. 105). According to Duns, the first grace itself can be merited de congruo by attrition, i.e. such repentance as is possible without grace. The second point to be observed is that the Council of Trent draws a natural consequence from the Augustinian idea of justification, by teaching that justification is progressive, and can and ought to receive continual increment (Sess. VI. cap. x.).
The great contrast between the Catholic doctrine and that of St. Pavd is obvious at the first glance. A second look, however, might suggest that per- haps the contrast was not so great after all. For the Catholic doctrine of justification corresponds, though by no means exactly, to St. Paul's doctrine of regeneration and sanctification. It mi^ht, there- fore, appear as if the ditterence were really one of language. Nevertheless, in the end the contrast ■ i.oated by this seeming possibility of I K II -c hi has acutely ob.ser\'ed (op. ' i-iii stUl remains in opposi-
if justification. What the jii-i ilh ation,' viz. acceptance with g'tlie iissurance of eternal life (Ro ), Catholic doctrine includes under the conception of hope. So Cone. Trid. Sess. y\. cap. xiii. : Christians ' ought to fear, kno-n-ing that they are regenerated unto the hope of glory, and not yet unto glory. . . .' No one, indeed, can be absolutely certain even of present grace (cap. ix.). It is true tliat within Catholicism the practical attitude of trust for s:'.lvation to the DiNnne mercy iloii,-, a|iait from all merits, and the consequent ,eii,e oi as.,untuce, are to be found, as to some extent
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JUSTIFICATION
JUSTIFICATION
in Augustine ( Harnaclc, op. cit. iii. p. 85 f . ), but pre- eminently in Bernard of Clairvaux. In this attitude is the true harbinger of the return to St. Paul at the Reformation (Ritsclil, op. cit.^ i. 109 fi'.). But we are now concerned with the Catholic doctrine, not with an attitude maintained in spite of it.
2. Tlie Protestant doctrine.— \f\i:h the Reforma- tion we have a return to the Pauline idea of justifi- cation. The absolutely fundamental character for the Christian religion of the Pauline conception is firmly seized. As is well known, Luther called justification by faith ' the article of a standing and falling Church.' The Protestant doctrine, however, assumes a special form, in antithesis to the interim Catholic development, and St. Paul's formula is sharpened into the still more definite shape ' justifi- cation by faith alone.'
We have to note, first of all, a reversion to the original Pauline ideas of grace, faith, and justifica- tion. Luther, indeed, especially in his earlier period, remained somewhat entangled with the Catholic conception of the last, making the tenn include botli a forensic and a real justification. This, however, was merely a matter of termino- logy, and has only a historical significance. Prac- tically Luther held the Pauline view : the emphasis with him falls on the forensic aspect of justification. Moreover, the somewhat confused terminology of Luther was corrected by Melanchthon, wlio says decidedly that justification with the Hebrews was a forensic word, and ojjiioses the idea of a real justification (Loci Thcologici : ' De gratia et justifi- catione ').
The Protestant theology, further, like St. Paul, found the revelation of the DiWne grace in Christ, and His work for sinners. Here, however, a con- siderable development takes place, based upon the mediajval development of the doctrine of the Atonement due to Anselm. The latter had viewed the death of Clirist in the first place as a satisfac- tion to God's honour, which liberated Him from the necessity of punishing sinners, and in the second place as a merit or work of supererogatory obedience, which could be made available for His followers. The Protestant theology accepted both these ideas, but with such modifications as made it possible to combine them with the forensic idea of justification. The death of Chri.st was viewed not as a satisfaction to God's honour, but to the penal sanctions of His Law. To tliis was added His active obedience to the Law in His life as a satis- faction to its positive requirements. The whole was summed up as Christ's active and passive obedience or merit, and regarded as a provision of the Divine grace with a view to the justification of sinners. Justification consists in the gracious im- putation of this twofold merit or obedience to the sinner on the sole condition of faith, so that he becomes not only guiltless before the Law, but also totally free from its claims. This conception is common to both the Lutheran and the Reformed Churches. It did not grow up all at once ; but the roots of it can be traced in the earlier Reformers, and it finally established itself firmly in both Churches. It is completely stated in the Formula of Concord (pars ii. Solida Declaratio, iii. 14, 15).