LEARNING. — To what extent did learning pre- vail in Palestine in the time of Christ ? and is it correct to say that He Himself and His Apostles and discii^les Avere illiterate ?
Higher education existed at least in the col- legiate institutions of the capital. From the restoration folloAving the epoch of the Exile there Avas a class of men Avho are known to us as ' scribes ' (sopherim). Their point of union Avas their knoAvledge of the LaAV, and Scriptures, and Traditions. So far they are parallel to the shastris, Avho are the authorities on Hindu litera- ture. Ezra, the second founder of the theocracy and a man of priestly birth, is designated a scribe (Ezr 7''). From his date measures Avere taken, directed to the establishment and maintenance of the saci'ed authority of the LaAv. The scribe was an interpreter to the people. The period of higher inspiration Avas giA'ing place to an age of didactic literature. And a succession of able scribes arose Avho expounded the sacred Ijooks, cherished and enlarged tradition, determined tlie details of re- ligious observance, and Avrote the Law in its ex- clusiveness on tlie minds of the jjeople. They Avere at their best in the 4th or 3rd cent. B.C. ; but thej' continued for many centuries. Pharisaism Avas a development of them, and they are also connected Avith the later books of AVisdom, Avhile in the post-Christian period their chief men are the ]Aal)bis. Part of their Avork consisted in the training of young scribes, and for this end schools or colleges Avere formed. In these the Scriptures formed a literai-y and theological basis, the LaAv, traditions, and national history Avere expounded, and judgment Avas given on the problems and practical questions of the time. This education Avas professional, and contained no secular culture ; and it Avas intensely national or Jewish. Yet here as elseAvhere there Avere varieties of opinion and diverging tendencies. The schools of Hillel and Shammai Avere rival institutions in tlie years pre- ceding the birth of our Lord. A generation later Hillel Avas succeeded by his perhaps more liberal gi'andson, Gamaliel, to Avhose classroom St. Paul came from Asia ]\Iinor to be trained in the LaAV.
Other schools less exclusive!}" religious, more akin to Greek institutions, are knoAvn to have existed in Jerusalem and other toAvns, Avhere especially the sons of men not oi)posed to the Roman occupation might be trained for public life. JeAvs of the Dispersion Avere at home in the Greek language, and had more immediate access to Greek literature. About tlie time of Christ several of the later apocryphal books Avere Avritten. Culture Avas Avidespread, and at least tAvo JeAvs belong to general literature : Philo the i:)liilosopher of Ale.xandria, avIio endeavoured to reconcile Hel- lenism and Judaism ; and Josephus the historian, Avho Avas brought up in Jerusalem.
But the Avork of the scribes Avas not confined to
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' higher education.' In every village they had planted a sjniagogiie, and in connexion with every syncagogue an elementaiy school was ultimately opened. For manj' centuries the training of the young was a duty enjoined upon parents. About IB.C. 75, Simon ben Shetach, a scribe and Pharisee, is said to have carried a law requiring boys to attend ' the elementary school.' Probably before that date a lower school sj^stem (such as was known to exist in the Greek world) was tentativelj' tried in all leatling centres. Now education was inaile compulsory. The schoolroom, known as tiie ' house of the book,' was either part of the synagogue or of the teachers house. The teacher, or hazzan, belonged to a humble rank of the fra- ternity of scribes. Lk (5") refers to a gathering of teachers of the law (voiJ.o5i5d<jKa\oL) from every city and village of the land. Whether or not school- masters are included, the reference implies a wide ditlusion of education.
The instruction given in these schools is con- sidered by Ramsay (Education of Christ) superior to that of Greece or any other ancient land. The subjects of study and methods of teaching were calculated to call forth and develop the best mental faculties of the boys. In the choice of subjects the theoretical and practical Mere suc- cessfully combined ; and pupils were taught both to think and to act, while maxims of duty were graven on their memories. The standard of aver- age intelligence was therefore high. And while in most cases no regular secondary education fol- lowed, it is to be remembered that the synagogue remained a place of instruction rather than of formal worship, and also that talented young men could carry reading and study farther than public provision was made for. Whether any of the leading disciples were educated in Jerusalem can- not be definitely known. But they were not ignorant. On tlie contraiy, they were men of keen intelligence and ardent spirit, who had been cherishing the Messianic hope and found in Jesus the realization of their dreams.
Ancient literature was mainly religious ; and learning is founded on literature. But though the circle of learning had religion as its centre, it in- cluded some stud}' of all the obvious phenomena of nature. Modern discovery is inoving that not only famous countries such as Egypt or Baby- lonia, but also peoples whose very names were formerly unknown, had a developed civilization and system of thought. Amongst the Israelites Moses and Solomon are credited (Ac 7", 1 K \'^-^) with all the knowledge the world then possessed ; and to the latter are attributed not only poetrj' and philosophy, but also an exhaustive knowledge of Natural History. The people were skilled in music and in works of architecture. But while Israel was producing its prophets, the imaginative genius of Greece was creating a secular literature and founding sciences. Gradually Greek influence extended to all lands. It was felt in Jerusalem even in the days of gi'eatest exclusiveness. Greek was the language of the Hellenistic Jews, and the Septuagint was their Bible. Greek ideas were thus ditlused over the surface of Hebraic religion, and helped to enrich the thought and life of the planters of Christianity. Of the NT writings it may confidently be said that they are not the work of unlearned men. St. Paul was probably mucii more learned than his letters show (Ac 263. ij) fijg Johannine writings are artistically conceived, and studded with gems of thought and expression. The Epistles to the Hebrews and Ephesians show an imaginative scope and a rhe- torical power scarcelj' surpassed. St. Luke had a literary faculty rare amongst physicians. It is true that Peter and John are styled ' unlearned '