8. The pre-eminence of Ephesus in Christian activity may be generally placed in connexion with the ministry of St. Paul in that city ; but its rise to the first rank as the seat of apostolic influence under -John (the Presbyter?) must have followed the Fall of Jerusalem, but cannot be fixed with precision.
9. The death of St. John, • the beloved disciple,' is associated by tradition with his residence at Ephesus to an extreme old age, occurring in the reign of Trajan (98-117). See art. James AND John (sons of Zebedee).
VIII. Literary Dates. — Nothing in the Apos- tolic Age was fuller of significance for the future than the production of the NT writings. But, while the dates of production of a few of these are comparatively easy to determine, the majority do not afiord sufficient data for the positive solution of the problem as it afiects them.
1. The Epistle of James. — Discussions of the date of this writing are based for the most part on the neutral features of it. The character of the audience to which it is addressed does not betray an advanced development of Christian thought or practice. There is no allusion to Gentiles in the Church. Compact organization has not yet been achieved, and it is possible for teachers (StSdo-KaXot) to assume the function at ^vill (3^ ; cf. Ac 13^, Ro 12^). The eschatological outlook still includes the vivid expectation of the Parousia (5^"^), which has not been disputed as in 2 P S^''*. In general the author addresses Jews as if the new doctrine of Christianity were the legitimate and rightful outcome of historic Judaism. Such a point of view was natural in the early beginnings when the challenge to Christianity was still in its first forms, but scarcely after the rupture between Judaism and the Church had issued in open and wholesale hostilities on each side. On the other hand, certain characteristics of language and style, together with supposed allusions to the Pauline doctrine of justification by faith, have led others to assume an extremely late date for the Epistle. Upon the whole, it seems probable that the date 40 to 44 is the correct one. Cf. JAMES, Epistle of.
2. The Thessalonian Epistles. — The First Epistle was written during the sojourn at Corinth (Ac 18^'). The referenec to Achaia (1"'-) is decisive
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on this point. The view that Athens was the place of writing, held hy Theodoret and many ancient Fathers, is deduced from 3\ which, how- ever, evidently refers to a stay at Athens some- what anterior to the composition of the Epistle. Since the Corinthian sojourn falls in 52-53, 1 Thess. must he dated accordingly. The Second Epistle could not have been written much later than its predecessor. It is evidently designed to explain what was misunderstood in 1 Thess. (2 Th 2-J, and aims to do this as speedily as possible. Cf. Thessalonians, Epistles to the.
3. Galatians. — The date of Galatians has been made the subject of a new discussion as the con- sequence of the promulgation of the South Galatian theory of its destination. The traditional dating of the document based on the North Galatian destination fixed it in the sojourn of the Apostle at Ephesus (Ac 19^). ' The reasons for this view are that St. Paul proceeded from Galatia to Ephesus (Ac 18-^), and must have written either before he reached that city (which is improbable) or during his sojourn, or perhaps on the way from Ephesus to Corinth. The rise of the South Gala- tian theory, however, renders it possible to think of a much earlier date. Accordingly, many argue for its priority over all the Pauline writings (Emilie Briggs, Neio World, 1900, p. 115 ff. ; C. W. Eramet, Expositor, Ith. ser., ix. [1910] 242 ff.; Garvie, Studies of Paul and his Gospel, 1911, p. 23 ff.); some trace it even to a time anterior to the Con- ference at Jerusalem. Calvin, singularly, held this view (cf. Com. on Gal 2'), fixing the date at 48 or 49. Had St. Paul written it as early as this date, however, he must have named Barnabas, who was still with him in his labours. Upon the whole, the year 54 still appears the most probable for the writing of this Epistle. See, further, art. Galatians, Epistle to the.
4. The Corinthian Epistles.— The First Epistle was written in Ephesus some time before Pentecost (1 Co 16**), whether before or after the Passover does not appear (5^"^). The Apostle was expecting to leave very soon ; and the writing must, there- fore, be placed towards the close of the stay at Ephesus, hence about the time of the Passover in 56. On the assumption of the unity of 2 Cor., the interval between it and the First Epistle could not have been very long, and the writing must accord- ingly be placed somewhat later in the same year. But, if the Epistle is a composite one, as it seems reasonable to believe upon good critical grounds, the probabilities are that the earliest section of it (614-71) constitutes a fragment of a letter earlier than 1 Corinthians. The second section in point of time is 2 Co 10-13 ('the painful letter') and re- presents the sequel to 1 Cor., gi-owing out of the situation created by the last-named communication. This portion of 2 Cor. is accordingly to be located in 56 as above. The remainder of the composite document (2 Co 1-9, exc. 6'^-7^) must be dated later than chs. 10-13, but is not necessarily separated from this section by a long interval. If the phrases 'since last year' (a-n-b Trepvat), 'a year ago' (2 Co 81"), * for a year past ' (9-) refer to 1 Co 16i, approxi- mately one year must have intervened between this portion of 2 Cor. and the First Epistle. This would bring the date to 57. Thus the dates of St. Paul's letters to Corinth would be : (1) 2 Co 6"-7i in 55 or early 56 ; (2) 1 Cor. in 56 before Pentecost ; (3) 2 Co 10-13 in summer of 56 ; (4) 2 Co 1-9, late 56 or 57. Cf. CouiXTHiAXS, Epistles to the.