10. Epistle to the Hebrews. — The evidence as to the date of this production is extremely faint and uncertain. The external data are partly some free citations from it in Clem. Rom. (xix. 2, xxi. 9 [cf. He 12'], xxxiv. 1 [cf. He 2^^ 3' 4--5 P'-]), and partly a certain dependence of thought on St. Paul and on 1 Peter. Internal data appealed to are such as that the Temple service was still operative (7^ 8^"^ g6-3 1310J . that, considering the purpose of the writing, if the Temple service had been rendered impossible by such an event as the catastrophe of 70, the writer must have mentioned the fact ; the non-occurrence of any severe persecution of Chris- tians in the Hebrew world leading to martyrdom (12^), the possibility of which is, however, kept in view. Other items are slighter and less conclusive. The most decisive indications of time seem to be the allusions in 10^^^- 12^- ^^', which show that the writer was thinking of an attitude in his readers of shrinking from suffering publicly, whether this was imminent or actual, though not severe. In Palestine this attitude of mind was to be met in the years of the Jewish war. The latter portion of the period, therefore, or the years 68 and 69, may very well be taken as the most appropriate setting for the writing. See, further, Hebrews, Epistle
TO THE.
11. The Epistles of Peter and Jude.— The date
of the death of St. Peter as already fixed necessi-
tates a date for 1 and 2 Peter prior to 67. For 2 Peter {q.v. ), in the present condition of the evidence, this proves impossible, on both internal and ex- ternal grounds. The conclusion is inevitable that this writing (together with Jude [q.v.}) must be detached from the Apostolic Age. For 1 Peter, however, there is a very natural place in the Apostle's sojourn in Rome. The mention of ' Baby- lon' (5'*) has been from very early days ( Euseb. HE ii. 15) referred to Rome, in harmony with tlie literary metliods of the day. The conditions rellected in the Avriting also correspond with those that pre- vailed in the reign of Nero. Christians had been obliged to leave the capital in large numbers and create a new ' Dispersion.' It was a time of tempta- tion to fall away because of hardships, threatened or actual, for bearing the name ' Christian.' Alto- gether, the year 66 or even 65 may, therefore, well have been the date of the writing of this Epistle. See, further, art. Peter, Epistles of.
12. The Johannine writings. — Of the writings of this group the Apocalypse offers the clearest marks of its age. But even here, from the earliest times, differing views have prevailed. Signs of an earlier time than Domitian's reign may easily be pointed out in the book. But they are quite as easily accounted for as reminiscences or traditions incor- porated into the work. The undeniable allusion to the worship of the Emperor (17'**''^), however, points to the reign of Domitian, under whom for the first time Emperor- worship assumed its serious aspect to the Christians. This, with some minor considerations, gives the predominance of weight to the Domitianic dating of the Apocalypse. See, further, art. Apocalypse.
The Fourth Gospel is related to the Apocalypse not merely by the external and superficial identity of the autlior's name but by the substantial agree- ment of the two writings in view-point and doctrinal system. Stylistic and linguistic characteristics, however, separate them very widely, and the afiili- ation of the two is best explained on the ground of origin within a Johannine 'school' or group. But if the Apocalypse was written between 85 and 95, the Gospel cannot be dated much earlier than the latter year, since such a Johannine group must have taken some time to develop its characteristic point of view and conceptions. On the other hand, the likelihood that Ignatius, Justin, and Papias were familiar with the Gospel fixes the latest date for the latter as 110. It must be dated, then, some time between 95 and 110, with the probability strongly in favour of a year prior to 100.
Of the Johannine Epistles (see John, Epistles of) the First must be connected in time as well as authorship with the Fourth Gospel. Whether it preceded the larger writing or followed it is of small importance. Its general period remains the same. The two minor Epistles by the Presbyter issue from the same group, and probably belong to the same general period.
Chronolooical Tablb.
A.D.
AJ>.
James .
44 (80-100)
Synoptic Gospels
1 and 2 Thessaloni
(JUv. [CO], Lk.
ans
53
[01], Mt. IGSJ)
60-«8
Galatians
54 (50-53)
Acts . . . ,
62
1 and 2 Corinthi-
Pastoral Epistles (:
ans .
56-57
and 2 Tim., Tit.) .
66
Romans
68
1 Pet.
60
Imprisonment Ep-
Hebrews .
69
istles (Col.,
Apocalypse
81-96
Eph., Philem.,
Epistles of John
98 (V)
PhU.) . .
69-61
Fourth Gospel .
96-100 (?)
Literature. — The primary sources of information outside the apostolic records and Epistles are tlie works of Josephus(^»if. and />'■/); the Aiina/s ot Tacitus; Suetonius, T/ie Lives of t/ie Twclvi' Ccesars ; and the works of Eusebius(i/£and C/ironicoii, to^'ctlier with Jerome's VS). The modern study of the subject has issued in a vast number of discussions. Some of these are incorporated in works of larger scope, such as E. Schiirer,