Clement of Rome uses the word jrapaTrrwo-is in combination with danger, in the sense of a fault incurred through disobedience to the counsels of the Fathers (Cor. 59). Ignatius, whilst not em- ploying the word ' offence,' warns the believers against the snares of the devil and against giving occasion to the heathen to triumph, and thus bringing discredit upon the whole body of believers through the folly of the few {Ep. ad Trail. 8). If love be the ruling principle of Christian morals, there is no aKavoaKov, for love removes rather than creates difficulties.
LiTERATORE.— Artt. ' Offence ' in 11 DB and in DCG ; Sanday- Hea'dlam, ICC, 'Romans,' s 1902, p. 390; F. J. A. Hort, Tlic First Epistle 0/ St. Peter, I. l-II. 17, 1898, p. 121 ; F. W. Robert- son, Sennmis, new ed., 1876, 3rd ser., xvi. ; J. Moffatt, 'Jesus upon "Stumbling-blocks,"' in ExpT xnyi. [1914-15] 407 £E.
J. G. James. OFFERING.— See Sacrifice.
OFFICER. — In the onlj' passages in which this word occurs in the apostolic writings (Ac 5''°' '"), it stands for the Gr. inr-qpiTTi^, and denotes an official of the Sanhedrin sent to bring the a|)Ostles lieforc the Court. These olliclals ai>pear to have been under the command of the cajitain of the Temple (v.-"). G. WaUCHOPE Stewakt.
OIL (IXaiOf, from 4\ala, 'olive-tree'). — As the Greek name implies, the common oil of Scripture is olive oil. It is obtained from the ripe olive berries by crushing and ]ircssure, aided sometimes by the use of hot water, and is used for food, light, soap-making, and for anointing the hair and the skin. In Rev 6* 'the oil and the wine' refer to the growing crops of olives and grapes. In 18" oil appears in the list of the merchandise of the apocalj'ptic Babylon.
The remaining references to oil in the apostolic writings illustrate two special purposes for which it was emiiloyed.
1. Ceremonial. — The olive oil used in the conse- cration of priests and kings by anointing was com- pounded with various perfumed ingredients (Ex 3023-aj jjj t;|,ig ^gg Qf QJi \yg have the basis of a number of figurative passages.
(a) In He 1" ( = Ps 45') ' the oil of gladness ' suggests the honour that has been bestowed on the Exalted Christ. Elsewhere there is more distinct reference to His royal position as the Messiah or Anointed One, and to the Holy Spirit as the means of His consecration to this office (Ac lO'* ; cf. 4"').
(b) The Holy Spirit given to Christians is repre- sented as an anointing oil. The context shows that this is the meaning of 2 Co 1-'. The same is true of tlie 'anointing' of 1 Jn2"°(AV' unction')-^.
2. Medicinal. — With this must be connected in some sense the much-discussed passage (Ja 5'*) where the elders of the Church are directed to pray over the sick brother, 'anointing him with oil in tlie name of the Lord.' The general use of oil in ancient times as a remedy for disease and injury is illustrated in Is 1*, Lk 10'^. The treatment applied to Herod the Great during his last illness (Jos. Ant. XVII. vi. 5, BJ I. xxxiii. 5) is a well-known case in point. That the practice was associated from early times with a belief in magic is shown by S. Daiches (Babylonian Oil Magic in the Talmud and in the later Jeivish Literature, 1913). The exact bearing of such facts on Ja S''' must remain obscure, but it is interesting to observe that the procedure here enjoined was anticipated by the Twelve (Mk 6"), though without any ex- press injunction from Jesus. One thing is clear, viz. that in James the healing of the sick is ascribed directi}' to ' the prayer of faith ' (v.") and not to the anointing. The latter must be regarded as quite subsidiary, originating probably in com- pliance with custom, yet dissociated from super- stition, since it is done 'in the name of the Lord,' and serving perhaps as a kind of sacramental help to faith. ' It is easier to believe when visible means are used than when nothing is visible, and it is still easier to believe when the visible means appear to be likely to contribute to the desired effect' (Plummer, bt. James and St. Jnde, p. 327).
There are few traces of observance of such a rite in the early Church, though the Emperor Septimius Severus believed himself to have been cured by oil administered by a Cliristian (Tertullian, ad Heap. 4). But from the 6th cent, onwards the practice was regularly established, and had dilTerent de- velopments in the East and in the West. In the latter it was finally transformed into the sacrament of Extreme LTnction, of which it need only be said that it is administered when recovery is supposed to be hopeless, whereas in James the anointing is expected to be followed by a cure. After the
108
OINTMENT
OLD TESTAMENT
Reformation we find tliat the First Prayer Book of Edward VI. (1549) provides for the N'l ceremony, ' if the sicke person desyre to be annoynted.' In the Prayer Book of 1552 this provision disappears. There has been a revival of the practice in certain Anglican circles in recent times (see F. W. Puller, The Anointing of t!ie Sick in Scripture and Tradi- tion, 1904).