brought the Christians to his attention. The}' were held largel}' responsihle for the general de- cline, because they had interfered with traililional religion and with that part of civic life which de- pcncled upon religion for prosperity. Even in the villag'es and country districts the temples had been for.saken anil the trade in fodder for the victims had been almost ruined. So Pliny, in order to restore the commercial prosperity of the province, took action against the Chri.stian.s. He put to death a few who had refused to recant and induced others to resume their former manner of life. This action encouraged the enemies of the new religion to bring still others to his attention, and even anonymous charges were entertained. This pro- cedure must have seemed to the Christians like the sudden outburst of a devastating conllagration, a veritable activity of their adversary the devil (4'''' 5*). But still there was a hopeful side to the situation. The governor had shown a disposition to investigate the charges, and if Christians would only take care always to be found innocent they might hope for favours from the courts and at the same time put their accusers to confusion. Ac- cording to Pliny's testimony, this was the course which the Christians of his province were actually pursuing. In obedience to his edict they had ceased holding meetings, and the criminal charges preferred against them proved on investigation to be wholly false.
Thus we might easily suppose, on the basis of conditions described by Pliny, that 1 Peter had shortly before been received by the Christian com- munity and had borne good fruit. Furthermore, the problems which it treats have several points of correspondence with the situation presupposed in Pliny's letter to the Emperor. He had called upon believers to revile Christ and worship Cassar, and they are especially admonished in 1 Peter to sanctify in their hearts Christ as Lord (3'^"^-), to remain loyal to His name (4'^"^'), and to refuse to return to their former mode of living (4-''-). The last item was the thing which Pliny was especially desirous of bringing about, and he says that his etibrts in this direction had been measurably success- ful. This fact may have furnished one of the in- centives for the writing of 1 Peter, exhorting believers to maintain a firm defence of their faith in Christ, yet a defence to be made with meekness and fear, while they thus retain a good conscience and hope for the best (3'"-)- Many items in the letter are admirably suited to the early days of Pliny's governorship, previous to his ajjpeal to Trajan and the issuance of the Emperor's rescript.
On the other hand, several interpreters prefer a Domitianic date, believing that it furnishes a more appropriate setting for the conditions described in 1 Peter. The situation under Trajan is thought to exhibit a too advanced type of persecution.* Even in comparison with Revelation, which is supposed to have been written in the last years of Domitian's reign, 1 Peter is believed to reflect a slightly earlier situation. The persecution seems to have broken out only recently (4'-), and resentment toward the authorities has not yet had time to develop (2'*"") ; while in Revelation the persecutors are hated bitterly and Christians have been enduring afflic-
* Detailed arguments against a Trajanic date are given by J. M. Usteri, M'issenjiehajtiicher und praktischer Commentar ilber den ersten Petntsbrief, pp. 243- 24S ; but he is equally opposed to a Domitianic date (p. 248 ff.). The latter view, how- ever, is held by a number of scholars— c.f;., in more recent times, H. von Soden in H. ,1. Holtzmann s [land- Komnuintar zum. ST'^, iii. 117 (making Sih-anus the real author); A. C. McGiffert, A History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age'-, p. 506f. (ascribing the letter to Barnabas) ; R. Knopf, op. cit. p. 24 f. The same date is assumed for the original form of the letter as re-con- structed by A. Harnack, Die Chronologie der altchri.stliehen Littcratnr, i. 45I-4t;5. and by W. Soltau, ' Die Einheitlichkeit des ersten Petrusltriefes,' in SK Ixxviii. [1905] 302-316, Lxxix. [1906] 456-460.
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tions for some time (2" 6'° 18-''). It is also said that in 1 Peter Christians are not being called upon to pay homage to the Emperor's image (but see 1 P 3^'), while this demand has become very offen- sive by the time Revelation was written (IS" 20*). Theretore 1 Peter is placed in the earlier part of Domitian's reign {e.fj. \on Soden, c. 90; McGill'ert, before 90 ; Knopf, 81-90 ; Harnack, 83-93).
This line of argument assumes that conditions north of the Taurus were practically identical with those of eastern Asia Minor, and that Revelation is a reliable witness to the Domitianic persecution. The former assumption might easily Ce disputed, and perhaps the latter is open to some question. Certainly the popular belief that Domitian in- stituted a vigorous persecution in the East is not substantiated by the earliest authorities.* Perhaps the Christians' troubles described in Revelation may have been brought on by certain local author- ities acting on their own initiative and being zealous for the cult of the Emperor which had been pro- minent in Asia since the time of Augustus, its chief seat being at Perganmm (Dio Cassius, li. 20 ; Tacitus, Annals, iv. 37 ; cf. Rev 2"). But there is manifestly little similarity between the situation reflected in 1 Peter and t^iat of the Christians in Revelation, nor is it certain that the two situations stand to one another in the relation of antecedent to consequent.