(c) Writings outside the NT. — (1) Wisdom. — Here we pass to a book which undoul)tedly influenced St. Paul. The main parallels are found in Ro I''"'--" (the attack on idolatry), which is closely similar to various passages in Wis 13 ;iiul 14, and in Ro 9'""^, for wliicli cf. Wis U'-' 12'"'- '-• -" 1,')'. In each ca.se thei)assages will be found in full in parallel columns in Sanday-Headlam (pp. 51, 207). On the other hand, the contrast between Ro 2 and Wis IS'"^' is most instructive. In the latter ]ia.ssage the writer boasts of the freedom of the Jew from idolatry ; St. Paul's words gain in force if read as a retort to this. Further, while Wisdom distinguishes be- tween the principles and motives of God's chastise- ment of Jews and heathen, very much to the favour of the former, St. Paul teaches that both are ultimately on the same level.
(2) Testaments of the 'twelve Patriarchs. — Here again a long list of parallel passages will be found in Sanday-Headlam, p. Ixxxii f., and also in R. II. Charles's ed. of the Testaments, London, 1UU8, \). Ixxv ft'. To take a single example, we may com- pare with Ro 12-' Test. Benj. w. 3, ' By doing good he overcometh evil' {ovtos rb dyaddv iroiutv vik^ to KaKSf). Sanday-Headlam suppose the 'Testaments to be the borrower, but they are now very gener- ally assigned to an earlier date (Charles, c. lOUB.C. ), and we may accept Charles's verdict, ' It will l>e clear that St. Paul was thoroughly familiar with the Greek Translation of the Testaments,' with the conclusion that his Epistles are sometimes depend- ent on that version. It need only be remarked that the parallels in Romans do not stand alone.
Literature. — For literature dealing with the Pauline Epistlea and theology in general, see under Paul. The litera- ture on Romans itself is very large : reference may be made to art. 'Romans,' IJDB iv. 306; to the list of Commentaries in Sanday-Headlam, ICC, 'Romans'^, Edinburgh, 1902, p. xcviiiff.; and to J. Moffatt, LNT, London. 1911, p^ 130. .\uiong the best tor general purposes may be mentioned fc. H. GifTord, Speaker's Coinnuntary, iii., London, 1S81 ; C. J. Vaughau, St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans'-^, do., 1870; B. Jowett, Kit'slh-s nt St. Paul to the Thess., Gal., and Rom.:>, do., lst)4 ; J. B. Lightfoot, Notes on EpiMles of St. Paul (covering Ro 1-7), do., Isvio ; F. Godet, Commentart/ tm St. Pant's Epistle to the Homans, Eng. tr., Edinburgh, 1881-82; J. Denney, E<;T, ' Romans,' London, 1900 ; and, above all, Sanday-Headlam, ICC.
Of German Commentaries the best are perliaps Meyer- Weiss, Der Brief an die /Vomers, Gottingen, 1899; A. Jiilicner, in Schriften des NT, do., 1907; H. Lietzmann, in Handbuch zum NT, Tubingen, 191U (valuable for quotations from con- temporary literature).
Of studies we may mention H. P. Liddon, Explanat&ry Analysis of St. Paul's Epistle to the liornans, London, 1893 ; F. J. A. Hort, Prolegomena to St. Paul's Epistlestothe Romans and Ephesians, do.,"lSOo; H. C. G. Moule, Expositor's liifde, ' Romans,' do., 1894 ; C. Gore, St, Paul's Epistle to the Romans, 2 vols., do., 1899-1900.
Reference may also be made to the artt. in the Bible Diction- aries. Literature on special points has been indicated in the course of the article. C. W. EmMET.
ROME. — Any attempt to describe Rome in the middle of the 1st cent, could be made only by one alike endowed with symi)athetic imagination and equipped with minute cruilition. Such an attempt has been made, not altogether unsuccessfully, by F. W. Farrar in his Darkness and Dawn (London, 1891), as well as by other writers. In this artick it has seemed best to mention one or two points in which Rome of that period differed from a moderr great city, and to follow this up by giving somt account of certain important buildings of the earlj
118
KO.ME
HOME
Empire, whether they actually date from the later Ueimblic or not. The writer has not rij;i(lly ex- ;liule(i those that belong to a period soniewhat later than Nero, hut he has as far as possible con- lined his attention throu^diout to buildings of which actual remains exist. lie has been indebte<l to standard works mentioned in the Literature, but has himself .-seen everything which he describes.
The population of Home at the time St. Paul reached it, about A.li. 00, may be estimated roughly at from l,50(),(IU(l to 2,()U0]u00, of which a very large proportion were slaves. The streets of the city were for the most ])art narrow, and no vehicles were allowed inside the city walls except the wagons necessary for building purposes. The tra- veller who did not wal k w as conveyed in a sedan chair or on horseback to one of the city gates, where his carriage was awaiting him. The public buildings were magnificent, but many of the dwelling- houses, three or more stories high, Avere in a state of dangerous disrepair. Crassus, the great financier of the 1st cent. B.C., owned much of this property, and derived a large fortune from it. Martial and Juvenal, towards the end of the 1st and the begin- ning of the 2nd cent. A.D., describe the perils to the pedestrian from falling tiles, etc. The dangers to the health of slum dwellers were to some extent obviated by the open-air life commonly led, by the porticoes which gave protection from sun and rain, by the theatre, amphitheatre, circus, etc. There was no proper lighting of the streets at night. Active life was supposed to end at sunset, and those who were abroad after dark were acconi- j:>anied by torch-bearers, as the Londoners of the 18th cent, by link-boys. Not till the time of Augustus was there any police in Kome, but the riots of the 1st cent. B.C. had shown the neces.sity, and Augustus divided the city into wards (regiones), and established an excellent police system, of which arch;cological remains have been found.