(c) It is possible to find links with the Jewish ritual system. Before the approach to the holy place stood the brazen sea, whose form and decora- tion suggest remoter links with Babylonian cosmo- logy. In the priestly system, whatever the past significance of the laver, it certainly stood for the necessity of purification for entry into the presence of God.
(rf) There may enter into the form of the imagery details taken from the local surroundings of the vision. It has been suggested that much of the form of early eschatological schemes is due to the local characteristics (cf. Gressmann, Der Ursprung (ler israelitisch-judischen Eschatologie, p. 31 tt'. ). H. B. Swete (The Apocalypse of St. John", London, 1907, p. 70) suggests that the .lEgean Sea, fired by the rays of the setting sun, has yielded the form of the splendid imagery of this vision. While this may be so, yet all the elements of the vision and their ensemble are an inheritance from the past.
3. Interpretation. — The central motive in the Seer's vision is certainly the relation between heaven and earth. The apparently confused and disorderly sequence of events on earth is really being ordered and determined by what takes place in heaven. Hence the Seer's first vision, as he gazes through the open door, is the throne, the centre and source of all the subsequent action of the book. The history of the world for him is dominated by that tlirone. The description of scenery surrounding the throne gathers up all the symbolism of the past, the cosmological, 'eschatological, and ritual elements, coloured, it may be, by the local scenery of Patmos. Before the throne the Sea, the emblem of chaos and destruction, lies calm and motionless, petrified and clear, the symbol of the throne's vic- tory over the opposing forces of darkness and dis- order. As the approach to the throne it symbolizes the holiness required of those who draw near. As the final tribulation draws to a close, that sea mingled with fire symbolizes the source of the throne's judgment on the earth below. The mar- tyrs, having passed through those judgments, stand triumphant on it and sing the song of the new E.xodus. Finally it becomes the source of the healing and purifying streams for the redeemed earth.
VOL. II. — 30
LiTERATCRE. — H. Grcssmann. Der Urttpntmder iaraelitisch- jiiituschfii t^nchatolitgie, Oottin^ren, KHI.'i; R, H. Charles, Kifchiitolnim, Hebrew, Jewish, and Chrintiatl, London, ISltH, The Apoi^ti/pha and Pneudt'piiirajiha 0/ the OT, Oxford, 191.S; H. B. Swtte, The Auacalm'te' 0/ St. Juhn^, London, lilllT ; C Clemen, I'rimittie Chrittianity and its Son..feni'>'h Sourceg, Edinburgh, 1912. S. H. HOOKE.
SEAL {(Tippayts, vb. rrfipaylM. — A seal is (1) the graven implement with which an impression is made on wax, clay, or other soft substance; and (2) the impression itself. The use of seals can be traced back almost to the dawn of civilization. The scarab seal was peculiar to Kgypt and the cylinder to Babylonia. Having a distinctive char- acter, requiring to be always at hand for use, and being a highly-prized and carefully-guarded pos- session, the seal naturally became a means of per- soii.al adornment. Seal and staflwere the insignia of a man of rank among the Israelites as among the Babylonians (Herodotus, i. 195). A cord was passed through the seal, wliich was worn either as a necklace or as a bracelet (On 38'*, Ca 8°, Jer 22**). In later times the signet-ring came into use among the Jews. The ring displayed by the rich worshipper (xpiwoSaxnAios) in the early Christian assembly (Ja 2-) was probably of this description. Signet-rings were largely in use among the Greeks and Komans, and many of these have been pre- served.
The seal was used at all times for the purpose of safeguarding valuable possessions : wine jars were stopped and sealed, letters written and sealed, rolls folded and sealed, doors closed and sealed. Hor- ace associates locks and seals — clave.i et sigilla (Ep. I. XX. 3). Property, security, secrecy, finality are the ideas suggested by the act of solemnly attach- ing one's seal to anytliing.
The figurative uses of the terra are numerous, (a) Circumcision is regarded by St. Paul as the seal of a righteousness which existed before the rite was instituted (Ro 4"). The same figure of ' speech was frequently used, though somewhat diH'erently interpreted, by the Rabbis. ' Ye shall not eat of the passover unless the seal of Abraham be in your flesh ' {Shemoth llabba, 19). Many parallels are given by J. J. Wetstein, Novum Testa- mentuin Grcecum, 1752, ad loc. (b) Vindicating his apostleship, St. Paul points to his converts as the seal which Christ Himself has affixed to his work (1 Co 9'). Can his opponents dispute a claim so clearly and autlioritalively attested ? (c) Be- lievers are sealed with the Holy Spirit of promise (Eph 1'^). They gave themselves to Christat their conversion, and the Spirit marked them as Christ's pecvlitim, consecrated to His service and destined for His eternal Kingdom. Sealed unto the day of redemption (4™), they receive in time an earnest of what they are to be in eternity (2 Co V). On all such believers, who are God's firm foundation, there is impressed the seal, ' The Lord knoweth them that are his ' (2 Ti 2'^). It is often said that the Scriptural seal with which Christians are sealed is baptism, a natural enough interpretation, seeing thathaptism early took the place of circumcision, which was expressly called a seal. J. H. Bernard (EGT, '2 Corinthians,' 1903) argues that the aorists in 2 Co 1" [acfipaytadfifvos. Sous) * point to acts completed at a definite moment in the past ; and this can only mean the moment of bripfi.':m.' But why not the hoiir of conscious regeneration or jier- sonal consecration? Lightfoot, Hatch, and Har- n.ick question whether any apostle ever transferred the metaphor of the seal to baptism (.see Sanday- Headhim, JVC, ' Romans '», 1902, p. 107) (rf) When St. Paul s])eaksof sealing the contribution ((.oimii/fa) of the Gcniiles (Ro l,*)-"- -") to the poor saints at .Jerusalem, he means, not that he needs, as a good steward, literally to seal and secure the collection