(b) Physics. — In this branch of their .sjstem the Stoics derived much from Hcraelitus, as did their cimtemporaries the Epicureans from Democritus. They declared the primary element to be a fiery ether which, after assuming grosser forms such as fire, as we see it, air, water, and earth, finally resumes its original character. They also held that the only reality is matter; and in this sub- .st.'ince they expressly included air, sky, and stars, the mind of man, including even his thoughts, passions, and virtues, and finally God. The novelty of their teaching lay in the idea of tension whicli they believed permeated all things. It was ac- cording to the variations of this (luality that one substance dill'ered from another. Vet even this is material or corporeal, dillering only in its varying degrees of fineness or subtlety in dillerent objects. Notwithstanding this materialistic view of things, the Stoic maintained that the whole world of men and things is under thegovernmeni of reason, which permeates and harmonizes all. In this reason man ]);utici]iates, an<l may partly understand its larger operations and in his own degree co-operate tbeie- with. Man's lower nature must be kept subordin- ate to these higher purposes, and in the end he will be re-absorbed into the Urnversal Reason.
(c) Kthirs. — Here we reach that branch of Stoi- cism for which all the rest existi d and to which it was only prelimin.-uy. It may be summed up in the weli-known phrase, 'live in conformity with Nature.' But it rs the Stoic interpretation of this formula that is significant. As against the Epi- cureans, who made pleasure the object of life, they insisted that virtue is the only (lood. All those objects which are usually regarded as desirable they banned — position, honours, wealth, health, men's favour, etc. In this they differed from the
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Cynics, tlieir predecessors, onlj- in being somewhat less harsh and severe. In opposition to the Epi- cureans, who liehl Miat pk'asiire was the motive |K)wer of animals and yonn^ children, they tau<;lit tliat these were guided rather by the instinct of self-preservation. And, tliouf;h allowing that pleasure is often associated with virtne, they de- clared that it was too precarious a factor to be relied on and sliould be ignored altogether. The aim of this attitude was practical, viz. to set man free from all the varying chances and changes of fortune and to reach a condition of 'apathy.' Whether, therefore, civil and personal affairs were congenial or otherwise, a man must remain master of both his feelings and his actions.
*In the fell clutch of circumstance
I have not winced nor cried aloud. Under the bludj^eonings of chance My head is bloody, but unbow'd '
(W. E. Henley, Invictus, 5-8).
Confronted with ordinary human affections and passions, whose disturbing influence is obvious to all, they declared them one and all to be wholly injurious. Even pity and compassion should be eschewed. No one suffers as much as we suppose. It is only just to note that in later times this general austerity was sliglitly modified. Some things might be preferred, others avoided, and the range of totally indifferent things was made narrower. But the underlying principle was never changed. Man must ignore or even laugh at cir- cumstances and act quite independently of them. Emotion is only perverted reason. Further, Stoi- cism recognized no degrees or gradations of virtue or vice. A man was entirely virtuous or entirely vicious. The ' wise man ' of the Stoics was perfect in every way. This extraordinary doctrine, modi- fied later, was due in part to the emphasis laid on motive or intention. Right motives made an act virtuous, however unfortunate its effects. The tendency to suicide, so marked s, feature among them, seems to contradict their theoretical indiffer- ence to pain. They explained this by saying that a man need live only as long as it was possible to do so with dignity and utility.
Cosmopolitanism was a striking element in the Stoic system. The only city to which they ac- knowledged fealty was the City of Zeus. All men being sons of God were brothers, and distinctions of race and country must be abolished. In theory friendships and the customary relations of home and State might not be prohibited, but in practice reasons for their neglect were invariably forth- coming.
{(1) Religion. — This was materialistic pantheism. God, the ruler and upholder of all that exists, is identical with universal law, and like all else is material. Though believing in a First Cause and a Mind governing all, both are corporeal. The different parts of the universe may be finer or coarser, but they are only forms of the one primary force. Cleanthes' Hymn to Zeus, which includes both adoration and supplication, seems in strange conflict with all this. Perhaps it may be taken as the revolt of the devout spirit against the arbitrary theories of the reason. In regard to the traditional and often debasing ceremonies of religion tlien in vogue, the Stoic attitude was one of compromise. Essentially they could not but be opposed to them. Praj'er was generally an error and by implication showed distrust in Divine goodness. Earthly temples were unworthy of God. Yet they tolerated the popular forms of worship, and explained them as a picturesque way of setting forth poor human ideas of the Deity. The age-long problems of Evil and Freedom proved insoluble on Stoic assumptions.