VIPER
VIRGIN, VIRGINITY
on the one hand, and from the trespasses of sheep an<l cattle, whose partiality for vine-leaves is well known, on the other (cf. Ps 80'=- ", Ca 2'^, Is 5-). Apparently every vineyard had its own wine-press. In many cases it is ditticult to say whether the fruit-press under consideration was an olive-press or a wine-press. Those which are deep and well adai)ted for treading were probably wine-presses.
No doubt many of the large quantities of grapes produced in olden days were used for dibs, a thick sweet juice which is still made in Syria, and which was probably used to a much greater extent in ancient times when cane-sugar was unknown. . See, further, artt. Abstinence, Harvest.
Literature. — H. B. Tristram, The Natural History of the Bil/le^o, London, 1911, pp. 4U2-413 ; W. M. Thomson, The Land and the Bonk, '6 vols., ed. do., lSSl-86, passim; J. C. Geikie, The liolif Land and the Bible, do., 1903, pp. 50- 62, 74 ; H. B. Swete, The Apocalypse of St. John^, do., 1907, p. 251 f. ; J. B. Mayor, The Epistle of St. James^, do., 1910, p. 125 ; C. Bigrg, ICC, • The Epistles of St. Peter and St. Judc," Edinburgh, 1901, p. 168; The Speaker's Commentary, iii. [London, 18S1] 776; R. A. S. Macalister, The Excavation o/ Gezer, 3 vols., do., 1912, passim ; DCG ii. 800f., 824 ; SDB, pp. 959, 973 f. ; HDB iv. 868-870. P. S. P. HaNDCOCK.
VIPER (^x'Si-a).— Apart from the Gospels, the only passage in the NT in which reference is made to the viper is in Ac 28^. Tlie viper mentioned here is probably the Vipera aspis, which is fairly common on most of the larger islands in the Mediterranean, but is no longer found in M.alta. The last-named fact has been urged as an objec- tion to the story, but that argument is singularly invalid. Wolves were found in England centuries after this viper at Malta, but they are extinct to-day, and it would be still more remarkable if poisonous vipers had managed to survi\'e in Malta after so many centuries (cf. K. B. Rackham, The Acts of the Apostles, London, 1901, p. 492). On the other hand, the suggestion that the viper in question is rather to be identihed with one of the non-poisonous species which are still found in the island is discountenanced by the whole context. It is manifest that the writer regards the incident as an extraordinary preservation from imminent danger (cf. Mk 16'*). The Vipera aspis is very partial to wood, and it is significant that the viper in Ac 28' came out of the firewood. The aboriginal forest has been cleared in Malta, and accordingly the disappearance of these venomous reptiles which infested the woods is merely what one would e.xpect. See, further, SERPENT, Asp.
Literature.— H. B. Tristram, Survey of Western Palestine, London, 1884, p. 140 ff.. Natural History of the BibleW, do., 1911, p. 276 f. ; SDB, p. 837 ; HDB iv. 460.
P. S. P. HANDCOCK.
VIRGIN, VIRGINITY.— 1. Metaphorical usage.
— St. Paul regards himself as the paranymph — the one who brings the bride to the bridegroom on the marriage day. The Corinthian Church is the intended bride, and St. Paul's ambition is to pre- sent her, a chaste virgin, to Christ. (The Rabbis ascribed this honour to Moses in the case of Israel.) Just as Israel was regarded by the prophets (Hos 2", Is 625, gtc ) as the bride of Jahweh, so St. Paul regards the Church here (2 Co IP). The figure was used by our Lord Himself. To Him His earthly sojourn with His disciples was like a marriage feast and His removal was regarded as the time of their widowhood (Mt 9'°). Elsewhere the Apostle (Eph b-^"-) urges husbands to love their wives ' as Christ also loved the church, and gave himself up for it ; that he might sanctify it, having cleansed it by the washing of water with the word, that he might present the church to himself a glorious church, not having spot or wrinkle or any such thing.' Here Christ Himself is at once Para- nymph and Bridegroom, and in both eases the days of the Church's espousals are in the future—
at the Parousia. In 2 Co U- St. Paul uses the thought to safeguard the Corinthians from decep- tion, so that the fate of Eve, whom the serpent beguiled, might not be theirs. St. John has the same figure (Rev 21). He sees the bride adorned for her Husband. It is noteworthy that marriage is used by both as a fit symbol of this most glori- ous reality. St. Paul regards Christian marriage as in some way deriving its gloiy from the true Marriage — of Christ and His Churcli (Eph 5-""-). In Rev 18-' the voice of the bridegroom and the voice of the bride are typical of earthly joy, and their absence in overthrown Babylon (liome) is a proof of its utter destruction ; so also Jeremiah in regard to Jerusalem (25'°) ; cf. Jos. BJ VI. v. 3.