hands for the task of terracing and watering, and the result gave the highest stimulus to industry. See Ir- rigation.
III. Soil, etc. — The Israelites probably found in Ca- naan a fair proportion of woodland, which their neces- sities, owing to the discouragement of commerce, must have led them to reduce (Josh, xvii, 18). But even
ering of fruits ; and whatever grew of itself was to be left to the poor, the stranger, and the beasts of the field (Lev. xxv, 1-7 ; Deut. xv, 1-10). But such an observance required more faith than the Israelites were prepared to exercise. It was for a long time utterly neglected (Lev. xxvi, 34, 35; 2 Chron. xxxvi, 21), but after the captivity it was more observed. Bv this
in earl}' times timber seems to have been far less used remarkable institution the Hebrews were also trained for building material than among Western nations ; to habits of economy and foresight, and invited to ex- the Israelites were not skilful hewers, and imported , ercise a large degree of trust in the bountiful provi- both the timber and the workmen (1 Kings v, G, 8). ' dence of their Divine King. See Sabbatical Year. No store of wood-fuel seems to have been kept ; ovens A change in the climate of Palestine, caused by in-
AGRICULTURE
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AGRICULTURE
crease of population and the clearance of trees, must have taken place before the period of the N. T. A further change, caused by the decrease of skilled agri- cultural labor, e. g. in irrigation and terrace-making, has since ensued. Not only this, but the great varie- ty of elevation and local character in so small a com- pass of country necessitates a partial and guarded ap- plication of general remarks (Robinson, i, 507, 553, 551; iii, 595; Stanley, Palestine, p. 118-126). Yet wherever industry is secure, the soil still asserts its old fertility. The Hauran (Pera?a) is as fertile as Damascus, and its bread enjoys the highest reputation. The black and fat, but light soil about Gaza, is said to hold so much moisture as to be very fertile with little rain. Here, as in the neighborhood of Bevrut, is a vast olive-ground, and the very sand of the shore is said to be fertile if watered. See Water.
IV. Crops and Fields. — Under the term *51, dagan , which we translate "grain" and "corn," the He- brews comprehended almost every object of field cul- ture. Syria, including Palestine, was regarded by the ancients as one of the first countries for corn (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xviii, 7). Wheat was abundant and excellent ; and there is still one bearded sort, the ear of which is three times as heavy, and contains twice as many grains as our common English wheat (Irby and Mangles, p. 472). Barley was also much cultivated, not only for bread, but because it was the only kind of corn which was given to beasts ; for oats and rye do not grow in warm climates. Hay was not in use ; and therefore the barley was mixed with chop- ped straw to form the food of cattle (Gen. xxiv, 25, 32; Judg. xix, 19, etc.). Other kinds of field culture were millet, spelt, various species of beans and peas, pepperwort, cummin, cucumbers, melons, flax, and perhaps cotton. Many other articles might be men- tioned as being now cultivated in Palestine ; but, as their names do not occur in Scripture, it is difficult to know whether they were grown there in ancient times or not. The cereal crops of constant mention arc wheat and barley, and more rarely rye and mil- led?). Of the two former, together with the vine, olive, and fig, the use of irrigation, the plough and the h arrow, mention is found in the book of Job (xxxi, 40; xv, 33; xxiv, G; xxix, 9; xxxix, 10). Two kinds of cummin (the black variety called " fitches," Is. xxviii, 27), and such podded plants as beans and lentiles, may be named among the staple produce. To these, later writers add a great variety of garden plants, e. g. kidney-beans, peas, lettuce, endive, leek, garlic, onion, melon, cucumber, cabbage, etc. (Mishna, Kilaim, i, 2). The produce which formed Jacob's present was of such kinds as would keep, and had kept during the famine (Gen. xliii, 11). The ancient Hebrews had little notion of green or root crops grown for fodder, nor was the long summer drought suitable for them. Barley supplied food both to man and beast, and the plant called in Ezek. iv, 9 ''millet," "jni, dochan' (the holcus dochna of Linn, according to Gesenius, Jleb. Lex. s. v.), was grazed while green, and its ripe grain made into bread. In the later pe- riod of more advanced irrigation the 'Tibpi, tiltan ', "fenugreek" (Buxtorf. Lex. Talm. col. 2601), occurs (Mishna, Maaseroth, i), also the PHd, shack'ath, a clover, apparently, given cut (Mishna, Peak, v, 5). Mowing (n, gez, Am. vi, 1 ; Ps. lxxii, 6) and ha}'- making were familiar processes, but the latter had no express word ; I^Sh, chatsir', standing both for grass and hay, a token of a hot climate, where the grass may become hay as it stands. The yield of the land, besides fruit from trees, was technically distinguished as ns- HO, tebuah' , produce, including apparently all cereal plants, lTVl*OBp, lcitmyoth', pod-fruits (nearly equivalent to the Latin legumen), and XS^a 1 3 12 IT zarunetf ginna' ', garden seeds (Buxtorf, ib. col. 693),