while the simple word seeds (1p3!l"'lT, zarunin") was used also generically for all seed, including all else which was liable to tithe, for which purpose the dis- tinction seems to have existed. (See Otho, Lex. Rabb. p. 17 sq.). See Botany.
The rotation of crops, familiar to the Egyptians (Wilkinson, ii, p. 4), can hardly have been unknown to the Hebrews. Sowing a field with divers seeds was forbidden (Deut. xxii, 9), and minute directions arc given by the rabbis for arranging a seeded surface with great variet}', yet avoiding the juxtaposition of heterogenea. Some of these arrangements are shown in the annexed drawings (from Surenhusius's Mischna,
Rabbinical Forms of Planting. i, 120). Three furrows' interval was the prescribed margin {Kilaim, ii, 6). The blank spaces represent such margins, often tapering to save ground. In a vineyard wide spaces were often left between the vines, for whose roots a radius of four cubits was allowed, and the rest of the space cropped ; so herb-gardens stood in the midst of vineyards (Peak, v, 5). Similar arrangements were observed in the case of a field of grain with olives about and amidst it.
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Jewish Corn-field, with Olive-trees.
Anciently, as now, in Palestine and the East the arable lands were uot divided into fields by fences, as in most countries. The ripening products therefore presented an expanse of culture unbroken, although perhaps variegated, in a large view, by the difference of the products grown. The boundaries of lands were therefore marked by stones as landmarks, which, even in patriarchal times, it -was deemed a heinous wrong to remove (Job xxiv, 2); and the law pronounced a curse upon those who, without authority, disturbed them (Deut. xix, 14; xxvii, 17). The walls and hedges which are occasionally mentioned in Scripture
AGRICULTURE
109
AGRICULTURE
belonged to orchards, gardens, and vinej'ards. See Garden. Fields and floors were not commonly en- closed ; vineyards mostly were, with a tower and oth- er buildings (Num. xxii, 24 ; Psa. lxxx, 13 ; Isa. v, 5 ; Matt, xxi, 33; comp. Jud. vi, 11). Banks of mud from ditches were also used. See Wall.
With regard to occupancy, a tenant might paj- a fixed moneyed rent (Cant, viii, 11) — in which case he was called "cVc'i, soke/ , a mercenary, and was com- pellable to keep the ground in good order — or a stipu- lated share of the fruits (2 Sam. ix, 10; Matt, xxi, 3-1), often a half or a third ; but local custom was the only rule ; in this case he was called ?3|""*"2, mekabbel' , lessee, and was more protected, the owner sharing the loss of a short or spoiled crop ; so, in case of locusts, blight, etc., the year's rent was to be abated; or he might receive such share as a salary — an inferior po- sition— when the term which described him was iZin. choker' , manager on shares (Buxtorf, Lex. Talm, col. 1955). It was forbidden to sow flax during a short occupancy (hence leases for terms of years would seem to have been common), lest the soil should be unduly exhausted (comp. Virgil, Georg. i, 77). A passer-by might eat an}- quantity of corn or grapes, but not reap or carrv oft* fruit (Deut. xxiii, 24, 25 ; Matt, xii,
1).
The rights of the corner (q. v.) to be left, and of gleaning (q. v.), formed the poor man's claim on the soil for support. For his benefit, too, a sheaf forgot- ten in carrying to the floor was to be left ; so, also, with regard to the vineyard and the olive-grove (Lev. xix, 9, 10; Deut. xxiv, 19). Besides, there seems a probability that even' third year a second tithe, be- sides the priests', was paid for the poor (Deut. xiv, 28 ; xxvi, 12 ; Amos iv, 4 ; Tob. i, 7 ; Joseph. Ant. iv, 8, 22). On this doubtful point of the poor man's tithe (i|JS "i'^""?, maasar' ant") see a learned note by Su- renhusius, ad Peak, viii, 2. See Tithe. These rights, in case two poor men were partners in occu- pancy, might be conveyed by each to the other for half the field, and thus retained between them (Mai- mon. ad Peak, v, 5). Sometimes a charitable owner declared his ground common, when its fruits, as those of the sabbatical year, went to the poor. For three years the fruit of newly-planted trees was deemed un- circumcised and forbidden ; in the fourth it was holy, as first-fruits ; in the fifth it might be ordinarily eat- en (Mishna, Orluh, passim). See Poor.
V. Agricultural Operations and Implements. — Of late years much light has been thrown upon the agricultu- ral operations and implements of ancient times, by the discover}' of various representations on the sculp- tured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt, and (to some degree) of Assyria. As these agree sur- prisingly with the notices in the Bible, and, indeed, differ little from what we still find employed in Syria and Egypt, it is very safe to receive them as guides on the present subject (see also Corse's Assyria, p. 560).
1. Ploughinghas always been a light and superficial operation in the East. At first, the ground was open- ed with pointed sticks; then a kind of hoe was em- ployed ; and this, in many parts of the world, is still