The Hoceacm constitution gradually developed itself^ the congregations in villages and smaller places seek- ing a connection with the bishops of the town. Of a regular metropoUtan constitution, only the first begin- nmg is found during this period, but the bishops of Borne, Alexandria, and Antioch were already regarded as the heads of very extensive ecclesiastical districts. Christian ministers assumed a distinguishing name {fiiaia^ and a peculiar dress fox divine service, and th^ were divided into many classes (see Binc^am, Ongmi Ecdedm; Planck, Geaok, der ckrislUchrhirch' Uckm GeselitdkafUver/astimg, Hanov. 1808). Towards the end of this period, resort began to be had to syn- eds and councils to settle ecclesiastical disputes. See Councils. The form of public worship waa gradual- ly fixed in imitation of that of the Jewish synagogue, and ccmaisted of prayer, singing, reading, and inter- piethig the Scriptures. Baptism was performed in the name of Jesus ; the agapas (q. y.) and the Lord's Sup- per (q. V.) were celebrated after divine service. The Murcss of doctrine were the epistles of the apostles and the records of the life of Jesus (the Gospels). Some of the gospels, which are now regarded as apocryphal, were in use in some of the churches, and some impor- tance was also attributed to eoclesiastiGal tradition. Chnrch discipline was veiy strict, and all grave of- fences were punished with exclurion (exoommunica^ te)» Asoettdsm and monasticism found their first •dberents in this period in Anthony,Paul of Thebes, ttdothers.
II. FremOeDeaih o/CoiukmtiHe theGrecUio ChaHe- (A.D. 887 to 800).— The. last attempt to suppress
Christianity by force, or at least to repress its further advancement, was made by Julian the Apostate (q. v.), but it fSailed utterly. His successors remained Chris- tians, and Christianity became the religion of court and state. The Church and the state began to exert a powerftil and reciprocal influence upon each other. See Church and State. The metropolitan constitu- tion was organized throughout the whole Church, and in connection with it the patriarchal constitution, rep- resented by the four patriarchs of Rome, Constantino- ple, Alexandria, and Antioch. The bishops of Rome began to claim jurisdiction over the whole Church. Councils and s3mods became more frequent. In addi- tion to the provincial councils of the first period, oecu- menical councils (q. v.) (of which one had been held during the first period, viz. that of Nioe, A.D. 825), to which all bishops of the Christian Church were in- vited, were held at Constantinople (881, 558), at Ephe- sus (481, 449), at Chalcedon (451). See Coumciub. They were occasioned by doctrinal controversies, the number of which greatly increased during this period. The doctrine of the Church on the person of Christ was attacked by the Arians, Eunomians, Adtians, Ano- mosans, Adoptians, Nestorians, Eu^chians, Mono- phjTsites, Jacobites, Monothelites, and other sects ; Uiat of the Trinity by the Tritheites ; that of the nature of Crod by the Seleudans and the Anthropomorphites. The Church also rejected the views of the Anddiko- marians, Bonosians, Jovinians, Collyridians, on the Virgin Mary ; those of the Euchites and Prisdllian- ists (modified Gnostico-Hanichjean doctrines); those of the Meletians and Donatists on the constitution of the Church. Momutidim was rapidly developed after the fourth century ; and as the lower secular -clergy were generally ignorant, the missionary work and the cul- ture of letters were almost entirely left to the monks. The ignorance of clergy and people facilitated the in- troduction of many innovations and corruptions in the doctrine of the Church, such as the veneration of saints and relics. Pomp and magnificence were introduced into the celebration of divine worship, and the arts began to be used to serve ecclesiastical ends. The Latin language was retained in worship, though it was no longer understood by all the people. The changes in the ancient discipline of the Church (for which in many cases even payments of money were substitnted) exerted a most disastrous influenoe on the Christian life. In the literature of this period, the names of Chrysostom, Augustine^ Cyril, Theodoret, Isidor of Pelusium, Isidor of Hispalis (SevOle), and Johannes Damascenus, stand forth most conspicuous.
III. From Charlemagne to Gregory VII (A.D. 800 to 1078).— Among the Germanic tribes, the Franks were attached most firmly to Christianity. Charlemagne in his conquests always sought to make Christiani^ the established religion, and his wars against the Saxons and Sclavonians were wars for the extension of Chris- tianity. The degraded condition of the clergy and the Church in his states induced Charlemagne to attempt various reformatory measures in behalf of the Church. By the establishment of convents and cathedral schools, he sought to promote the education of the clergy. By his order the corrupt translation of the Bible was cor- rected, .the congregational singing improved, more prominence given to the sermon in divine worship, and annual visitations of the diocese by the bbhope introduced. See Charlekagkb. While Christianity rapidly advanced in Northern Europe, the body of the Church was divided, in consequence of the rivalry of the bishops of Rome and Constantinople, into the West- em or Latin, and the Eastern or Greek Church. The two churches excommunicated each other, and a per- manent union has never since been effected. The Greek Church, first enslaved by the emperors of Con- stantinople, and afterwards trodden down by the Turks, .
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became petrified and stationary. In the Roman Church the rights of metropolitans and bishope were more and more curtailed, and those ofthe pope enlarged, especial- \y by the pseado-Isidorian Decretals. See Decretals. False. Spain, England, and the other European countries gradually surrendered their ecclesiasticid in- dependence, and tiie pope became all-powerful in the exercise of jurisdiction as well as in doctrinal decisions. Bishope and abbots became the possessors of large property; the pope entered the ranks of secular princes, and strove to subject even the secular goyemments to his influence and rule. Most of the literary institu- tions founded by Charlemagne were suspended within half a century after his death, and the general igno- rance of the clergy became so great that the bishope had to order that "every clergyman must know at least the Apostles' Creed." The theology of this pe- riod spoke little of Christ, his work and his merits ; tlie belief in the intercession of the saints, in the effi- cacy of their relics, and similar points, became prom- inent in the mind of the Church. The pope re- served to himself the examination of the genuineness of the relics, and the beatification and canonisation of holy men. In the eleventh century the rosar}' (q. v.) came up in England and Holland, and new festivals were introduced, especially festivaJs in honor of the Virgin Mary. Pilgrimages (q. v.) commenced in this period. In ecclesiastical architecture the Romanic style was developed in the tenth century. Among the doctrinal controversies, those on the Lord's Supper (q. V.) were the most important. Morality was g^- erally at a low ebb, and there was no vice which was not prevalent among the clergy and in the monasteries, and immorality passed over fh)m them to the people.