St. Simonism and Fourierism gave rise to an im- mense number of publications in France. Among the most eminent writers are found, among the Socialists, Lamennais, who, in bis Essais tur V Indifference (1827), attempts to bring the socialistic idea into unison wiUi religious dogmas, while in his pamphlet D'avenir he calls the people back to union with the Church of Rome on the ground that it upholds the doctrine of equality before God, from which social equality will follow. For this he was put under the ban by the pope. Stung by this treatment, he published the Par- oles (fun Croyant; Politique h V Usage du Peuple; Pajfs et Gouvemementy which are among the most radical works extant. Of a more abstract and speculative character are the works of Pierre Leroux, Essais sur VEgaliU (1837), and De VHumamU (1840), wherein he considers the principle of equality as a dogma, and recognises no distinctions of country, family, or prop- erty. The latter point is the foundation of Proudbon's doctrine ; he attempts to prove that the right of prop- erty is unnatural in his work Qu'est-ce que la Prqpriete f (1840), to which question he returns the significant an- swer, La Proprike c'est le Vol, This work was follow- ed by i>e 2a Crkaion de VOrdre dans VHumaniU (1848), and the Philosophy of Misery (1846). As the advocate of socialism among the newspapers, Louis Blanc stands first. His principal object is the organization of labor, to be accomplished by using state competition to de- stroy private competition ; the state acting as capitalist, and rewarding each worker according to his deserts. Buonarotti's (f 1837) History of the Conspiracy of Ba- heuf{La Conspiration de 5a6cti/*(Paris, 1828), gave fresh circulation to Babeuf's theories, which found organs in Le MonitewR^publicainy 1837-88, and Lhomme libre, af- ter August, 1839. A practical application of these prin- ciples was prevented by the insurrection of the Society des Saisons, May 12th, 1839, led by Blanqni and Barb^. The failure of that enterprise damped the communis- tic spirit, and for a while there were only a few soli- tary attempts made, such as Quenisset's (1841). Still, secret societies continued to be organized, such as the SociiU des Travailleurs Egalitaires, composed of the re- maining followers of Barb^, who pushed the commu- nistic principles to extremes, and considered material- ism as the immutable law of nature. Opposed to them were the B^formisles, comprising the greater part of the workingmen, who aimed at community of labor; a newspaper advocating their principles, VAtelier, ap- peared in 1840. The Icarian Communists^ headed by ^t, strove to realize an ideal system of communism, j
depicted by the latter in his Foyt^ m Uarie (IMft The state, in this system, has no property, moD^, or distinct function ; there are no distinctions of daasn or ranks, and yet the state is immensely rich, as ercnr thing belongs to it ; the integrity of the ftnuly is pre- served, and marriage held sacred, but the women are employed in the general workshops ; all affairs are te be settled by the Comity from whose decistona these ■ no appeal. These ideas were further disseminated m Cabet's newspaper, Le Populaire. An extreme sect of these communbts was established in 1843 by DSzamy, who, bringing everything back to the individual, ar- rived at the fundamental maxim, We must do as ve can; consequently, one may take all he requires i»r the time being. In this system no God is necesaazy, and man satisfies himself with what he finds in na- ture.
YI. Ccmmumsm and Socialism, sistce Use RemMim of February, 1848.— This revolution gave at first a new impulse to socialism. The words LXbertiy EgtHu, FrateniU, posted on all the walls and ^ipendod to all the decrees of the republic, seemed to contain all that Socialists could wish for. The government itself wis composed in part of Socialists. The result was the organization of the national work-shops, which only served to prove again the impracticability of these the- ories. But communism began to lift ita head by the side of socialism, and made great progress with tt^ lower classes. 'Both united in the insnrrectioa of June, 1848. The putting down of the OMTement by General Cavaignac dispersed the leaders, some of whom took reAige in England; but their doctriaef^ nevertheless, continued to gain adherents among the lower classes of France. In 1850 a secret sodaJistir society was discovered, whose ramificationa, from its centre at Beziers, extended almost through the whde of southern France, and which had completed a pian of general insurrection. This also led to the difcor- ery, in Paris, of the secret society La Nimms, wbofe members, at their initiation, swore to defend the inal- ienable rights of man to liberty, equality, and frater- nity.
The Socialism and Communism of Switzerland aad Gennany present no particularly new featnres, bdog mostly based on French theories. After the £ulare of the Revolution of 1849, the leaders fled ttoai Ger- many to England, from whence they continued to di- rect the operations of the Commumst Association ff La- bor, divided in circuits and communities, and stron^r organized in Germany. But the alliance of the gov- ernments in 1850, the lack of energy among the con- federates, and the publication of the aims of the socie- ty in June, 1851, by a tailor^s apprentice, Peter Nodi- jung, at Leipsig, materially injured the organizatioiL In Belgium French communistic ideas also obtained to some extent, and were upheld in several newspa- pers. In 1845 Consid6rant went to Brussels to advo- cate the Fourierite theories, but found no opportumtr of carrying them into practice. These ideas, howerer, took a firmer hold among the lower classes of Italy; Pius IX, in a letter to the Italian bishops and ardt- bishops, December 9th, 1849, recommended them to use all efforts to prevent the propagation of sodaiiso. That the existence of these communistic societies de- pends on the personality of their founders, and not on their own excellence, has been demonstrated. Aft^r the death of the leading spirits, the organisations in- variably degenerate, if they do not entirely dispeisp. In the United States a number of attempts have been made to establish communistic colonies, partly upon a merely humanitarian, and partly upon a religions baais. Among the former belong the communistic odony es- tablished by Cabet at Nauvoo, several oolonies estab- lished by the Grerman communist Weitling and his ad- herents, and several phalanges established by the ad- mirers and followers of Fourier. They have all per- ished. Among the second class of communistic afi8o>