Egyptian edicts seem to have been issued in the form of a firman or written order ; and from the word used by Pharaoh in granting power to Joscpli ("Ac- cording to thy word shall all my peo]ile be ruled;'' Hebrew kiss, Gen- xli, 40, alluding evidently to the
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custom of kissing afrmcin^, we may infer that the peo- ple who received that order adopted the usual Eastern mode of acknowledging their obedience to the sover- eign. Besides the custom of kissing the signature at- tiiched to these documents, the people were doubtless expected to " bow the knee" (Gen. xli, 43) in the pres- ence of the monarch and chiefs of the nation, or even to prostrate themselves before them. The sculptures represent them thus bowing with the hand stretched out towards the knee.
The account of brick-making in Exod. v, 7-19 is illustrated in a remarkable degree l)y a painting in a tomb at Thebes, in which the hardness of the work, the tale of bricks, the straw, and the native taskmas- ters set over foreign workmen, are vividlj' portrayed. The making of bricks was a monopolj' of tlie crown, which accounts for the Jews and other captives being employed in such numbers to make bricks for the Pha- raohs. See Bkick.
Certain injunctions of the Mosaic law appear to be framed with particular reference to Egyptian prac- tices, e. g. the fiict of false witness being forbidden by a distinct and separate commandment, becomes the more significant wdien we bear in mind the number of witnesses required b}" the Egj-ptian law for the execu- tion of the most trifling contract. As many as six- teen names are appended to one for the sale of a part of certain properties, amounting only to 400 pieces of brass. It appears that bulls onh', and not heifers, were killed bv the Egj'ptians in sacrifice. Compare with this the law of the Israelites (Num. xix, 2), com- manding them to "bring a red heifer, without spot, wherein was no blemish." It M'as on this account that Moses proposed to go "three da3's' journey into the desert," lest the Egj-ptians should be enraged at seeing the Israelites sacrifice a heifer (Exod. viii, 20) ; and by this verj' opposite choice of a victim they were made unequivocally to denounce and separate them- selves from the rites of Egypt. The Egyptian com- mon name for Heliopolis was AN, from which was de- rived the Hebrew On or Aon, pointed in Ezek. xxx, 17, Aven, and translated 1)}^ Bethshemesh (Jer. xliii, 13). So also the Pi-beseth of the same place in Eze- kiel is from the Egyptian article Pi, prefixetl to Bast, the name of the goddess there worshipped, and is equiv- alent to Bubastis, a city named after her, supposed to correspond to the Grecian Artemis. The Tahpanhes of Scripture (Jer. xliii, 8 ; Ezek. xxx, 18) was per- haps a place called Daphnaj, sixteen miles from Pelu- sium.
XYIII. Comparison with the ]\ fanners of the 7nodern Inhabitants. — The mode of life of the Egj'ptians has in all ages necessarily been more or less influenced bj' their locality : those who dwelt on high lands on the east, as well as those who dwelt on the marshy flat countr}' iu the Delta, have become shepherds, as their land does not admit of cultivation. The people who live along the Nile become fishermen and sailors. The cultivated part of the natives who live on the plains and over the surfiice of the country diligently and most successfulh' practise all the arts of life, and in former ages have left ever-during memorials of their proficiency and skill.
On this natural diversity of pursuits, as well as on a diversity of blood — for besides the master and rul- ing race of Ethiopians there were anciently others who were of nomade origin — was early founded the institu- tion of so-called castes, which Egypt had, although less marked than India, and which pervaded the en- tire life of the nation. These, according to Herodotus (xi, 164), were seven in number (comp. Diod. Sic. i, 73). The priestly caste was the most honored and in- fluential. It had in every large city a temple dedica- ted to the deitA' of the place, together with a high- priest, who stood next to the king and restricted his power. The priesthood possessed the finest portions of the countrj'. They were the judges, physicians,
astrologers, architects — in a word, they united in them, selves all the highest culture and most distinguished offices of the land, while with them alone laj' tradi- tion, literature, and the sacred writings. This class exerted the most decided and extensive influence on the culture not only of their own country, but of the world ; for during the brightest periods of Grecian his- tory the love of knowledge carried into Egypt men who have done much to form the character of after ages, such as Solon, Pj'thagoras, Arehytas, Tliales, He- rodotus, Plato, and others (comp. Gen. xli, 8 ; Exod. vii, 11 ; viii, 11 ; xiii, 7 ; Josephus, Ant. ii, 9, 2).
The peculiarities of the ancient Egyptians of the lower castes seem to have survived best, and to be represented, at least in some particulars, by the Fel- lahs of the present day. These Fellahs discharge all the duties of tilling the country and gathering its rich abundance. They are a quiet, contented, and submis- sive race, always living, through an unjust govern- ment, on the edge of starvation, yet always happy, with no thought for the morrow, no care for, no inter- est in, political changes. "Of the Fellahs it may be said, as was said by Amrou of the ancient Egyptians, ' the}' are bees always toiling, always toiling for oth- ers, not themselves.' The love of the Fellah for his country and his Nile is an all-absorbing love. Ke- move him, and he perishes. He cannot live a year away from his village ; his grave must be where his cradle was. But he is of all men most submissive : he will rather die than revolt ; resignation is his primary virtue ; impatience under anj' yoke is unknown to him ; his life, his faith, his law is submission. 'Al- lah Kerim!' is his hourly consolation, his perpetual benediction. He was made for peace, not for war; and, though his patriotism is intense, there is no min- gling in it of the love of glory or the passion for con- quest. His nationality is in his local affections, and they are most intense. Upon this race, the race of bright ej-es and beautiful forms, it is impossible to look without deep interest : of all the gaj% the gayest ; of all the beings made for happiness, the most excita- ble. If daj's of peace and prosperity could be theirs, what songs, what music, what joys!" (Bowring's Re- port, p. 7).