III. Statutory Regulation.— Tha dryness of the land in the hot season in Syria of course increases the lia- bility to accident from fire (Judg. ix, 15). The law therefore ordered that any one kindling a fire which caused damage to corn in a field should make restitu- tion (Exod. xxii, 6 ; comp. Judg. xv, 4, 5 ; 2 Sam. xiv, .80; see Mishna, Maccoth,\\, 5, 6; vol. iv, 48, Suren- hus. ; Burckliardt, Sijrin, p. 496, 622). This law was calculated to t^ach caution in the use of fire to the herdsmen in the fields, who were the parties most concerned. And it is to be rememliered that the herdsmen wore generally substantial persons, and had their assistant shepherds, for whose imprudence they were made responsible. Still no inference is to be drawa
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from this law with regard to fires breaking out in towns, the circumstances being so very different. See Damages.
IV. Penal. — Punishment of death by fire was award- ed by the law only in the cases of incest with a moth- er-in-law, and of unchastity on tlie part of a daugliter of a priest (Lev. xx, 14 ; xxi, 9). In the former case both the parties, in the latter the woman only*, was to sufi'er. This sentence appears to have- been a relaxa- tion of the original practice in such cases (Gen. xxxviii, 24). Among other nations, burning alive appears to have been no uncommon mode, if not of judicial pun- ishment, at least of vengeance upon captives ; and in a modified form was not unknown in war among the Jews themselves (2 Sam. xii, 31 ; Jer. xxix, 22 ; Dan. iii, 20). In certain cases the bodies of executed crim- inals and of infamous persons were subsequently burnt (Josh, vii, 25 ; 2 Kings xxiii, 10). See Plnisiiment.
V. Alilitary. — In time of war towns were often de- stroyed by fire. This, as a war usage, belongs to all times and nations; but among the Hebrews there were some particular notions connected with it, as an act of strong abhorrence, or of devotement to abiding desola- tion. See Accursed. The principal instances his- torically commemorated are the destruction by fire of Jericho (Josh, vi, 24) ; Ai (Josh, viii, 10) ; Ilazor (Josh. xi, 11) ; Laish (Judg. xviii, 27) ; the towns of the Ben- jamites (Judg. xx, 48); Ziklag, by the Amalokites (1 Sam. XXX, 1); Jazer, by Pharaoli (1 Kings ix, IG); and the Temple and palaces of Jerusalem by Nebu- chadnezzar (2 Kings XXV, 9). Even the war-chariots of the Canaanites were burnt by the Israelites (Josh, vi, 24 ; viii, 28 ; xi, G, 9, 13), probably on the princi- ple of precluding the possibility of recovery by the enemy of instruments of strength for which they had themselves no use. The frequency with which towns were fired in ancient warfare is shown by the verj' nu- merous threats b}' the projdiots that the towns of Is- rael should be burned b}' their foreign enemies. Some great towns, not of Israel, are particularly named ; and it would be an interesting task to trace, as far as the materials exist, the fulfilment of these pro])hecies in those more marked examples. Among the places thus threatened we find .Damascus (Isa. xliii, 12, 13), Gaza, Tyre, Teman (Amos i, 7, 10, 11). The temples and idols of a conquered town or people were very often burnt by the victors (Isa. liii, 12, l:)). The Jews were expressly ordered to destroy the idols of tlie heathen nations, and especially any citj^ of their own relapsed into idolatry (Exod. xxxii, 20 ; 2 Kings x, 2G ; Dent, vii, 5 ; xii, 3 ; xiii, IG). One of the expedients of war in sieges was to set fire to the gate of the besieged place (Judg. ix, 49, 52). See Siege.
• In battle, torches were often carried by the soldiers, which explains the use of torches in the attack of Gid- eon upon the camp of the Midianites (Judg. vii, G). This military use of torches was very general among ancient nations, and is alluded to by many of their writers (Statius, Theh. iv, 5, 7 ; Stobanis, Serin, p. 194 ; Michaelis, in Symbol. Liter. Bremens. iii, 254). See Torch.
Signal fires on the tops of mountains were also an- ciently common as a telegraiihic mode of conve)'ing intelligence both in civil and military matters (Judith vii, 5). See Beacox.
VI. Funereal. — Incense was sometimes burnt in honor of the dead, especialh' royal personages, as is mentioned s])ecially in the cases of Asa and Zedekiah, and negatively in that of Jehoram (2 Chron. xvi, 14 ; xxi, 19; Jer. xxxiv, 5). See Funeral.
VII. Metallurgic. — The use of fire in reducing and refining metals was well known to the Hebrews at the time of the Exodus (Exod. xxxii, 24; xxxv, 32; xxxvii, 2, G, 17 ; xx.xviii, 2, 8 ; Numb, xvi, 38, 39). — Kitto, s. v. ; Smith, s. v. See Haxdichaft.
VIII. Figiinttive Senses. — 1. Fire is in the Scriptures considered as a symbol of Jehovah's presence (see
Mehner, De Deo in igne, Dresd. n. d.) and the instra- ment of his power, in the way either of approval or of destruction (Exod. xiv, 19 ; Numb, xi, 1, 3 ; Judg. xiii, 20 ; 1 Kings xviii, 38 ; 2 Kings i, 10, 12 ; ii, li ; vi, 17 ; comp. Isa. 11, G ; Ixvi, 15, 24 ; Joel ii, 30 ; Mai. iii, 2, 3 ; iv, 1 ; 2 Pet. iii, 10 ; Be v. xx, 14, 15 ; see Be- laud, Ant. Sacr. i, 8, p. 2G ; Jennings, Jewish Ant. ii, 1, p. 301; Josephus, A7it. iii, 8, 6; viii, 4, 4). Thus he appeared in this element at the burning bush and on Mount Sinai (Exod. iii, 2 ; xix, 18). He showed himself to Isaiah, Ezekiel, and John in the midst of fire (Isa. vi, 4; Ezek. i, 4 ; Bev. i, 14), and it is said that he will so appear at his second coming (2 Thcss. i, 8). The people of Israel wandered through the des- ert, guided bj' the Lord under the form of a pillar of fire [see Pillar] (Exod. xiii, 21); and Daniel, relat- ing his vision, in which he saw the Ancient of days, says, "A fiery stream issued and came forth before him" (vii, 10). God maj' be comjjared to fire, not only by reason of his glorious brightness, but also on ac- count of his anger against sin, which consumes those against whom it is kindled, as fire does stubble (Deut. xxxii, 22; Isa. x, 17; Ezek. xxi, 3; He!., xii, 29). Coals of fire proceeding from God's mouth denote his anger (Psa. xviii, 8). His word also is compared to fire (Jer. xxiii, 29). Thus, in Jer. v, 14, "Behold, I will make my words in thy mouth fire, and this people wood, and it shall devour them." See Flajie.