expression to his disappointed ambition in efforts to humble his successful rival, which led to almost inces- sant wars between them, and wasted the lives and treasures of his subjects without adding to his fame or possessions. Francis sought to secure the support of Henry VIII of England, and a personal interview was held Ijetween these monarchs on a plain near Calais, called, from the magnificence displayed, the " Field of the Cloth of Gold ;" but the craft}' Wolsey managed to nullify the results of the meeting. The contests which followed were generally unfortunate for Fran- cis, who in 1525 led an army into Italy, and was de- feated and made ])risoner at the battle of Pavia. He was only released on signing a treaty dishonorable to himself and his country, which he secretly protested against, and when once more at home openly repudia- ted. A powerful combination, called the Holy League, was formed to curb the ambition and power of Charles, but failed, chiefly from lack of energy and discretion on the part of Francis, whose mind was too much un- der the control of favorites and mistresses. "\\'ith al- ternations of success awd failure, of truce and war, these conflicts continued during the life of Francis, who sought aid of the Turks, the pope, the English, and the German Protestants, and abandoned the one or the other ally as the vacillations of feeling, the promptings of jioliey, or the influence of favorites de- termined. It is said that he finally died from the ef- fects of a disease which an injured husband found means of communicating to him. Francis was a pa- tron of artists and literary men, and his name is justlj' associated with the renaissance of literature and art; but he was despotic, devoted to pleasure, and grosslj' licentious — now inclining to religious toleration, now witnessing himself the torch applied to light the fires of the stake ; in 1531 an all}' of the Protestiint '''■ league oj" Sinalcald,^' in 1545 permitting a most atrocious per- secution of the peaceful Vaudois, his life presents a picture wherein the virtues of the brave chevalier are overlapped and almost hid by vices that darkened the lustre of his early fame, and left their traces in the corrupt morals of successive reigns. — Wright, Bistort/ of France (London, 3 vols. 4to), i, 6S6-676; Sismondi, Histoire dfs Fran^ais (Bruxelles, 1849, 18 vols. 8vo ; see Index in vol. xviii) ; Ranke, History of the Papacy (1851, 2 vols. 8vo) ; Hoefer, Nouv. Biog. Genevale, xviii, 510-530. (J.W. M.)
Franciscans, the name of several monastic orders which follow the rule of Francis of Assisi (q. v.). Fran- cis himself founded three orders: an order of friars, called Jlinorites {Fralres Minores'), an order of nuns [sec Clarisses], and an order of Tertiaries i((. v.). These orders split into a large number of divisions, some of which even assumed other names, and be- came entirely indepen- dent of the original Franciscans. See Min- ims; Capuchins.
1. Franciscan Friars. — This order was found- ed in 1210; in that year, at least, Francis gave the rule which united his followers into a mo- nastic commimity. As, however, their life in common commenced be- fore that period, some historians assume the : year 1208 or 1206 as the ; year of foundation. The origin of the Francis- cans marks a turning- point in the history of monasticism, for they were the first and most prominent representa-
FRANCISCANS
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tives of the mendicant (q. v.) orders. Francis with some difiiculty. obtained the papal approbation of his order [see FitANCis of Assisi] in li'lO, and in 1215 he received also the sanction of the Council of Lateran. The grovvtli of the order was astonishingly raj)id. At the lirst General Chapter, held in 1219, more than 50U0 friars assembled, and it was resolved to send out preachers of repentance to Germany, France, Spain, Englaiul, Hungary, and Greece. In 1223 tlie rule of the order was written down, and at tiie same time the order received extensive privileges from llonorius III. Francis resigned tlie burden of the generalship in 1220. His first successors, Peter of Corbona, and Elias, assumed, however, onl\- the title of ministers general, regarding Francis, notwithstand- ing his resignation, as the chief superior. Elias intro- duced various changes ; the monies assumed a less coarse garb, built beautiful churches and convents, and commenced to cultivate science. Francis had severe- ly censured these mitigations, but after his resignation they soon began to prevail. The advocates of the prim- itive rigor, at their iiead Anthony (q. v.) of Padua, suc- ceeded, however, in enlisting the sympatliy of poj)e Gregory IX, by whom Eiias was deposed. But a few j'ears later (1236) Elias was re-elected general, and re- turned to his old principles of mitigation. Tlie rigor- ous party, and especially their leader, CiBsarius (q. v.) of Spires (hence their name, C(esariiies),weve subject- ed to a cruel persecution, by which Cajsarius even lost his life (1239). This, however, caused the second de- position of Elias, and the first two of his successors fa- vored the strict party. But Crescentius of Jesi, elected in 1244, followed the footsteps of Elias, and the Cffisar- ines were again persecuted until Bonaventura (cp v.) was elected general in 1256. He gradually restored the strict discipline, and raised the order to a degree of prospsrity which it liad never enjoyed before. Tho ascendency of the strict party lasted until the general- siiip of JNIatheo di Aquas Spartas, who again sided with the other party, which henceforth remained predom- inant until the whole order permanently split into two parties. The advocates of the primitive rigor sought to form themselves into independent congregations, such as the Celestines, the Minorites of Narbonne, and the Spirituals [see Discalceati, 13], but they sutiered from their opponents an almost uninterrupted persecu- tion. The Celestines (established in 1204) were con- demned by the Inquisition as heretics in 1307, the Minorites of Narbonne and the Spirituals in 1318. The INIinorite Clarenines, founded in 1302 b}' the ex-Celes- tine Angelo di Cordona, ol)tained toleration as an inde- pendent congregation, and existed as such until 1517, when they united with the OI)servants. Tw-o other congregations, the Minorites of the Congregation of Philip of Majorca, and tha Minorites of John of Valees and Cientilc of Spoleto, were of very short duration. In 13(!8 Paoletto di Foligno founded a new congrega- tion, which followed the unaltered rule of Francis, spread rapidly, was approved by the popes, and thus caused the order of Franciscan iriars to split into two main brandies, the Conventuals, who followed tlie mitigated rule, and the Observants, who adliered to the primitive strict rule. Tlie efforts of the Convent- uals to suppress their opponents failed, for the latter were conliruied by tlie Council of Constance in 1415, received the permission to hold General Chapters, and obtained possession of the churcii of Portiuncula, the celebrated birtliplace of the order. From both the Oliservants and Conventuals other congregations Lranclied oft". The consequent confusions in the order induced pope Julius II to command by a bull all con- gregations to unite either with the Observants or Con- ventuals. The former i-eceived also, in 1517, from Leo X, the right to elect the general of the whole order, while the Conventuals could only elect a minister gen- eral, whose election had to be ratified i)y the general. The following independent congregations joined the