II. Materials and general Ckaracte7:^ThcTe is no rea- son to suppose that many houses in Palestine were con- structed with wood. A great part of that country was always very poor in timber, and some parts of it had scarcely any wood at all. But of stone there was no want, and it was consequently much used in the building of houses. The law of Moses respecting leprosy in houses (Lev. xiv, 33-40) seems to prove this, as the characteris- tics there enumerated could only occur in the case of stone walls. Still, when the Hebrews intended to build a house in the most splendid style and in accordance with the taste of the age, as much wood as possible was used. Houses in the East were frequently built of burnt or merely tlried clay bricks, which were not very durable (Job iv, 19 ; INIatt. vii, 26). Such were very liable to the attacks of burglars (Job xxiv, 16; Matt, vi, 19; xxiv, 16. See Hackett's Illitst. of Script . p. 94). The better class of houses were built of stone, the palaces of squared stone (1 Kings vii, 9; Isa. ix, 10), and some were of marble (1 Chron. xxix, 2). Lime or g}'i)sum (probably with ashes or chopped straw) was used for mortar (Isa. xxxiii, 12 ; Jer. xliii, 9) ; perhaps also asphaltum (Gen. xi, 3). A plastering or whitewashing is often mentioned (Lev. xiv, 41, 42; Ezek. xiii, 10 ; Matt, xxiii, 27) ; a wash of colored lime was chosen for palaces (Jer. xxii, 14). The beams consisted chiefly of the wood of the sycamore, from its extreme durability (Isa, ix, 10) ; the acacia and the iialm were employed for columns and transverse beams, and the cj^Dress for flooring-planks (1 Kings vi, 15; 2 Chron. iii, 5). The fir, the olive-tree, and cedars were greatly esteemed (1 Kings vii. 2 ; Jer. xxii, 14) ; but the most precious of all was the almug-tree : this wood seems to have been brought through Arabia from India (1 Kings X, 1 1, ] 2). Wood was used in the construction IV.— A A
of doors and gates, of the folds and lattices of windows, of the flat roofs, and of the wainscoting with which the walls were ornamented. Beams were inlaid in tlie walls, to which the wainscoting was fastened by nails to ren- der it more secure (Ezra vi, 4). Houses finished in this manner were called ceiled liouses and ceileil chambers (Jer. xxii, 14 ; Hag. i, 4). The lower part of the waUs was adorned with rich hangings of velvet or damask dyed of the liveliest colors, suspended on hooks, and taken down at pleasure (Esth. i, 6). The upper part of the walls was adorned with figures in stucco, with gold, silver, gems, and ivory ; hence the expressions " ivory houses," " ivory palaces," and " chambers ornamented with ivory" (1 Kings xxii, 39; 2 Chron. iii, 6; Psa.xlv,8; Amos,iii, 15). Metals were also employed to some extent, as lead, iron, and copper are mentioned among building materi- als ; but esi)ecially gold and silver for various kinds of soUd, plated, and inlaid work (Exod. xxx vi, 34, 38). The ceiling, generally of wainscot, was painted with great art. In the days of Jeremiah these chambers were ceiled with costly and fragrant wood, and painted with the richest colors (Jer. xxii, 14). (See each of these parts and mate- rials in their alphabetical place.) The splendor and mag- nificence of an edifice seems to have been estimated in a measure by the size of the square stones of which it was constructed (1 Kings vii, 9-12). In some cases these were of brilliant and variegated hues (1 Chron. xxix, 2). The foundation stone, which was probably jilaced at the corner, and thence called the corner stone, was an olyect of peculiar regard, and was selected with great care from among the others (Psa. cxviii, 22 ; Isa. xxviii, 16 ; Matt, xxi, 42 ; Acts iv, 11 ; 1 Pet. ii, 6). The square stones in buildings, as far as we can ascertain from the ruins which yet remain, were held together, not by mortar or cement of any kind, excejit a very small quantity indeed might have been used, but by cramp irons. Walls in some cases appear to have been co\-ered with a composition of chalk and gypsum (Deut. xxvii, 2 ; comp. Dan. v, 5 ; Acts xxiii, 3. See Chardin's Voyages, ed. Langles, vol. iv). The tiles dried in the sun were at first imited by mud placed between them, afterwards bj-^ lime mixed with sand to form mortar. The latter was used with burnt tiles (Lev. xiv, 41, 42; Jer. xliii, 9). For the ex- ternal decoration of large buildings marble columns were employed (Cant, v, 15). The Persians also took great delight in marble. To this not only the ruins of Persep- olis testify, but the Book of Esther, where mention is made of white, red, and black marble, and likewise of veined marljle. The Scriptural aUusions to houses re- ceive no illustration from the recently discovered monu- ments of the :\Ics(ip<.taniian mounds, as noimvate houses, either of Assyria or Babylonia, have been preserved ; owing doul)tless to tlieir having been constructed of jier- ishable mud walls, at most imldsed only with thin slabs of alabaster (Layard's Mii,r,h. ii, 214). See Ticmi'i.k.