There has been much discussion and much difference of opinion as to what Lao-tzu really intended by Tao. The word means a [lath, a road ; the way or means of doing a thing; a course ; reason, doctrine, principle, etc. Lao-tzu sf)metimes uses it in its ordinary' senses, l)ut it is evident that in general he uses it in a transcendental sense, which can only be ascertained by a carefid study of his writings. Tao is something which existed be- fore heaven and earth, and even before deity. It has no name, and never had one. It can not be ai>]irehend- ed by the bodily senses ; it is profound and mysterious ; it is calm, void, solitary, and unchanging ; yet, in opera- tion, it revolves through the universe, acting ever^,-'- where, but acting mysteriously, spontaneously, and without effort. It contains matter, and lias an inherent power of production ; and although itself formless, yet comprehends all possible forms. It is the ultimate cause of the universe, and is the model or rule for all creatures,
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but chiefly for man. It represents also that ideal state of perfeetidn iu which all things acted liarnionionsly and spontaneously, good and evil being then uidinown, and tiie return to -which constitutes the sKininum bo- v)iM of existence. French and English writers gen- erally have translated Tuo by " Reason," some adding '■or Logos." There are some striking similarities be- tween Tao and Loijos; and in aU the translations of the Scriptures into Chinese the Lo(jos of John is rendered by Tao. Julien, decidedly dissenting from the common translation of 2'«o, adopts "Voie" or " Waj'" — giving just cause for his dissent in the fact that Lao-tzu repre- sents Tao as devoid of thought, judgment, and intelli- gence. Julien's "Way," however, is also objected to, as implying a way-maker antecedent to it, while Tao was before all other existences. The '• Nature" of mod- ern specidators probably answers more nearly than any- thing else to 7'ao, although it will by no means answer all the conditions of the use of Tao by Lao-tzu.
Doctrines. — (1.) The teachings of Lao-tzu on specu- lative physics may be summarized as follows : All exist- ing creatures and things have sprimg from an eternal, all-producing, self-sustaining unity called Tao, which, although regarded as a potential existence, is also dis- tinctly denominated non-existence, Lao-tzu considering it equivalent to the primeval Nothing or Chaos. jVfr. Watters (see below) thus combines these apparently con- tradictory views : " Though void, shapeless, and imma- terial, it yet contains the potentiality of all substance and shape, and from itself produces the universe, diffus- ing itself over all space. It is said to have generated the world, and is frequently spoken of as its mother — * the dark primeval mother, teeming with dreamy be- ings.' All things that exist submit to it as their chief, but it shows no lordship over them. All the operations of Nature (Tao) occur without any show of effort or vi- olence— spontaneously and unerringly. Though there is nothing done in the universe -which Nature does not do, though all things depend upon it f-r their origin and subsistence, yet in no case is Nature tisibl// acting. It is in its own deep self a unit — the smallest possible quantity, j-et it prevails over the wide expanse of the universe, operating unspent but unseen." Lao-tzu's ac- count of the origin of the universe is, " Tao begot 1, 1 begot 2, 2 begot 3, and 3 begot the material universe ;" ■which has been explained by commentators that Tao generated the Passive Element in the composition of things, this produced the Active Element, and this the harmonious agreement of the two elements, which brought about the production of all things. The next thing to Tao is heaven — i. e. the material heaven above us. This is pure and clear, and if it should lose its puri- ty would be in danger of destruction. The earth is at rest, the heavens always revolving over it, producing the various seasons, vivifying, nourishing, killing all things. Tlien come the "myriad things" — all ani- mate and inanimate existences, that spring from Tao — which, although in itself impalpable, bodies itself forth in these olyccts, and thus liecomcs subject to human ob- servation. This manifestation of Tao in each object constitutes its Te. Te is generally translated "Virtue," but this rendering is inadequate. It seems frequently to refer to the specific nature of the olyect spoken of, whicli is derived from Universal Nature (Tao). Follow- ing the popular ideas of his country, Lao-tzu speaks of five colors, live sounds, and live tastes, and regards all things as arranged in a sj'stem of dualism — e. g. a wood- en vessel, in the case of which solidity gives the object, and hollnwness the utility. In representing pure exist- ence <'is identical with non-existence, he anticipated He- gel, of our own century, who says, " Scyn und Nichts ist dasselbe" — Being and Non-being are the samO. He agrees with those modern phikisophers whp maintain that God made all things out of himself, but differs from them in never introducing personality into his concep- tion, and consequently excluding will and design from the primordial existence.
(2.) In politics he assigns the original choice of a sovereign to the people, and holds that he whom the people elect is the elect of heaven. He conceives of the sovereign as rather the model and instructor than the judge and ruler of the people. He compares the ruling of a kingdom to the cooking of a small fish, which is easily spoiled by too much cooldng. The first duty of the ruler is to rectify himself. This done, it will be easy for him to regulate his kingdom. He speaks in strong terms against military oppression, and has a poor opinion of fire-arms. He opposes capital punishment and excessive taxation. He thinks the people should be ke|)t ignorant — the ruler shoidd empty their minds and till their stomachs; weaken their wills and strength- en their bones. The intercourse of different states with each other should be regulated by courtesy and forbear- ance. ,