We learn from the monuments [see cut on page 308] that the ancient Egyptians were well acquainted with the various processes of tanning and working in leather, and from them the Hebrews undoubtedly derived their knowledge of the art of preparmg leather for a variety of useful purposes. It appears that the Egyptian tan was prei^ared in earthen vessels, and that the workmen could preserve skins either with or without the hair. The preparation of leather was an important branch of Egyptian industry (see Wilkinson's Egyptians, ii, 93, 99, 105), Leather appears to have been used by the an- cient Assyrians in some cases for recording documents upon (Layard's Nineveh, ii, 147), See Tanner.
Leaven. In the Hebrew we find two distinct words, both translated leaven in the common version of the Bible. This is unfortimate, for there is the same distinction between "Nb, seur', and Y"^^^ chamets', in the Hebrew, as between leaven and leavened bread in the English. The Greek ^I'/trj appears to be used onlj' in the former sense, and it is doubtful if it applies to a liquid. Chemically speaking, the " ferment" or " yeast" is the same substance in both cases; but "leaven" is more correctly applied to solids, " ferment" both to liq- uids and solids.
1. "'Xb, seijr', occurs only five times in the Scriptures, in four of which (Exod. xii, 15, 19 ; xiii, 7; Lev. ii,ll) it is rendered " leaven," and in the fifth (Dent, xvi, 4) "leavened bread." It seems to have denoted original- ly the remnant of dough left on the preceding baking, which bad fermented and turned acid ; hence (accord-
LEAVEN
308
LEAVEN
ing to the Lexicon of Dr. Avenarius. 1588) the German sillier, English sour. Its distinctive meaning therefore is, fermented or leavened mass. It could hardly, how- ever, apply to the murk or lees of wine.
2, you, chamets', ought not to be rendered " leaven," but leavened bread. It is a more specific term than the former, but is confounded in our translation with it. In Numb, vi, 3, the cognate noun is applied to wine as an adjective, and is there properly translated " vin- egar of wine." In this last sense it seems to corre- spond to tlie Greek ti^of, a sort of acid wine in very common use among the ancients, called by the Latins posca, vinum culpatum (Adam, Rom. Antiq. p. 393; Jahn, Fiibl. ArclueoL § 1-4-4). This species of wine (and in hot countries pure wine speedily passes into the acetous state) [see Drink] is spoken of by the Tal- mudists, who inform us that it was given to persons about to be executed, mingled with drugs, in order to stupefy them (Prov. xxxi, G; Snnhedrin, folio 43, 1, c vi). This serves to explain IMatt. xxvii, 34. A sour, fermented drink used bj' the Tartars appears to have derived its name kumiss from the Hebrew chamets'. From still another root comes also nS"5,' 7natstsah' (sweet, "without leaven" [Lev. x, 11]), unleavened (i.e. bread, though in several passages " bread" and " cakes" are also expressed). In Exod. xiii, 7, both seOr' and
chamets' occur together, and are evidently distinct: ^^ Unleaveiwd bread (matstsuh') shall be eaten during the seven da}'s, and there shall not be seen with thee fermented bread (chamets'), and there shall not be seen with thee leavened dough (^seOr') in all thy borders." See Wine.
The organic chemists define the process of fermenta- tion, and the substance which excites it, as follows : " Fermentation is nothing else but the putrefaction of a substance containing no nitrogen. Ferment, or yeast, is a substance in a state of putrefaction, the atoms of which are in a continual motion" (Turner's Chemist?-//, by Lie- big). This definition is in strict accordance with the views of the ancients, and gives point and force to many passages of sacred writ (Psa. Ixxix, 21 ; Matt, xvi, G, 11, 12 ; Mark viii, 15 ; Luke xii, 1 ; xiii, 21 ; 1 Cor. v, 5-8 ; Gal. V, 9). Leaven, and fermented, or even some readily fermentible substances (as honey), were prohibited in many of the typical institutions both of the Jews and Gentiles. The Latin writers use corruptus as signify- ing fermented ; Tacitus applies the word to the fermenta- tion of wine. Plutarch (Rom. Qucsst. cix, G) assigns as the reason why the priest of Jupiter was not allowed to touch leaven, " that it comes out of corruption, and cor- rupts that with which it is mingled." See also Aulus Gellius, viii, 15. The use of leaven was strictly forbid- den in all offerings made to the Lord by tire, as in the case of the raeat-oifering (Lev. ii, 11), the trespass-offer- ing (Lev. vii, 12), the consecration-offering (Exod. xxix, 2 ; Lev. viii, 2), the Nazarite-offering (Numb.vi, 15), and more particularly in regard to the feast of the Passover, when the Israelites were not only prohibited on pain of death from eating leavened bread, but even from having any leaven in their houses (Exod. xii, 15, 19) or in their land (Exod. xiii, 7 ; Deut. xvi, 4) during seven days, commencing with the 14th of Nisan. The command was rigidly enforced by the zeal of the Jews in later times (compare IVIishnah, Pesach. ii, 1 ; Schottgen, Ho- i-(B Hebraicce, i, 598). It is in reference to these pro- hibitions that Amos (iv, b') ironically bids the Jews of his day to " offer a sacrifice of thanksgiving with leav- en." Hence, likewise, even honey was prohibited (Lev. ii, 11) on account of its occasionally producing fermen- tation. In other instances, where the offering was to be consumed by the priests and not on the altar, leav- en might be used, as in the case of the peace-offering (Lev. vii, 13) and the Pentecostal loaves (Lev. xxiii, 17). It is to be presumed also that the shew-bread was un- leavened, both, it fortiori, from the prohibition of leaven in the bread offered on the altar, and because, in the di- rections given for the making of the shew-bread, it is not specified that leaven should be used (Lev. xxiv, 5-9) ; for, in all such cases, what is not enjoined is pro- hibited. Jewish tradition also asserts that the shew- bread was without leaven (Josephus, Ant. iii, 6, 6; Talm. Minchoth, v, 2, 3). On Lev. ii, 11, Dr. Andrew Willet observes, " They have a spiritual signilication, because ferment signifieth corruption, as St. Paul applieth (1 Cor. V, 8). The honey is also forbidden because it had a leavening force" (Junius, Hexapla, 1631). On the same principle of symbolism, God prescribes that salt shall al- ways constitute a part of the oblations to him (Lev. ii, 31) on account of its antiseptic properties. Thus St. Paul (comp. Col. iv, 6; Eph. iv, 29) uses "salt" as pre- servative from corruption, on the same principle which leads him to employ that which is unfermented (uZvfioQ) as an emblem of purity and uncorruptedness. See Pass- over.