Much controversy arose also concerning the dogma of divine foreordination, and both contending parties found no difficulty in bringing proof from the Koran, which is especially rich in contradictions on this point. In one passage it reads : '■ To him who wants this world we give directly according to our pleasure ; but he will be rejected and derided in the future state, and burned in hell." In another passage it is said : " Follow tlie most beautiful sent to you from your Lord, before punisliment befalls you, and you find no more assistance ; before the soul exclaims. Woe to me! I have sinned and was of the mockers; or. If God would have guided me, I would have feared liini; or. Could I return to the earth, I would jirac- tice the good. Not so; my signs (the verses of the Koran) have come to thee, thou hast declared them lies, thou wast haughty and unbelieving." While these and similar passages, as well as the continual threats and l)r(imises, speak clearly in favor of a d >gma of hinnan free will, there are others which make the acts of man dependent on the divine will, and render man, as to vir- tue and vice, a blind instrument of divine arbitrariness. Tims we read : '■ For those who are unbelievers, it is the same whether thou ((iod is speaking to Moliammed) admonishcst them or not; they believe not. (iod has sealed their hearts, and over their eyes and ears there is a covering." And further : " The" infidels say, Why docs God not send any miracles to him (Mohammed) ? Say, The Lord leaves in error whom he chooses, and guides those who turn to him who believe, and whose hearts find rest at tlic thought of Divinity." Very fre- (piently we meet in the Koran with the phrase: "(iod guides whom he pleases, and leaves in error whom he jileases." These and similar verses, however, if we sur- vey the whole without any bias, can be interpreted as meaning that (Jod in his wisdom appoints at what time and wliioii ])eople he will bless by his revelation, and tliat lie strengthens by faith the men who desire the g<ioil and true in tlieir aspirations, while lie aljandons those in j wlidui the propensity for evil predominates, to their ' m;)re and more increasing corrui)tion, and thus measur- alily liardens their hearts. Again: if the doctrine of [ j>re(le>tination is stidly adopted, not to come in conflict witli divine justice, the doctrine of original sin— i. e. of I
an internal corruption of mankind in consequence of the sin of Adam — must also be assumed. But such a dogma is not mooted in the Koran ; on the contrary, in several places the idea of accountability for the sins of others ia controverted. There is, to be sure, in the Koran, as in the Old Testament, the narrative of the first human couple residing in paradise, of their disobedience against God's interdiction, and of their expulsion from it ; how- ever, when Adam repented of his sin, (iod pardoned him, and said to him : " Leave the paradise, but my guide (revelation) will come to you; he who follows it has nothing to fear and never will know sorrow, but the in- fidels who declare our signs lies will be eternal inmates of hell." Thus it is evidently taught that the curse which rested on the human race by Adam's sin is avert- ed; divine grace manifests itself by revelation, and eveiy prophet from Adam to Mohammed, who desig- nated himself as the last one for the seal of prophecy, is a Saviour for every one who believes in revelation, and acts according to its precepts. Of a further grace to purify mankind from original sin, and enable them to regain the beatitude of paradise, no mention is made, consequently the idea of being predestined to damna- tion would not be compatible with divine justice.
The history of the prophets also occupies a very large space in the Koran. Besides the Olil Testament, several other prophets are named, who are said to have been sent to the extinct tribes of Arabia. The history of all these so-called divine messengers is embellislied with many legends, partly to be found in the Talmud and in the Midrash, but by Mohammed fashioned to suit his purpose, in order to inspire his antagonists with fear and his votaries with consolation. He likes to identify himself with the Biblical prophets, puts into their mouth such words as he addressed to the jMeccans, represents also those messengers of God as disregarded by their contemporaries, and that hence (iod's wrath is inflamed, and infidels are caused to perish with ignominy, until finally, however, truth comes to prevail, and the perse- cuted prophet triumphs, surrounded by the few who be- lieved in him previous to the divine punishment.- In pursuance of this system, Jlohammed, to be consistent, cannot accept the crucifixion of Christ ; for no man ought to atone for the sins of others, nor ought a prophet to be forsaken b\' (iod. Therefore the Koran teaches it was not Christ who was crucified, but an infidel Jew whom (iod invested with the form of Christ, whom the Jews crucified in his stead. " Verily, Christ Jesus, the son of JMary, is the apostle of God. and his word, which he con- veyed unto ^lary, and a spirit iimceoding from him, hon- orable in this world and in tlie world to come; and one of those who approach near to the presence of (iod. Yet Jesus was a mere mortal, and not the son of (iod; his enemies conspired against his life, but a phantom was substituted for him on the cross, while he was translated to heaven" (Sur. iii, 5t ; iv, 156, 150). There is also other mention and estimate expressed in the Koran concern- ing Christ. He is called the living Word and Spirit of God. The miraculous birth of Christ has nothing offensive to ]\Iohammed, for Adam h.ad also been created by the breath of (iod. Neither does he hesitate to re- ceive all miracles related in the (iospels, since similar ones had been performed by Abraham and Closes. Even the ascension is to him neither new nor incredi- ble, as the same is reported of Klijah and Fnoch. Be- sides the crucifixion, he abhors in the Cliristian dogmas the supposition that a prophet with his mother are placed next to the Deity, and declares the Trinitarian view to be an impious fiction of the priests. Tiie Jloham- mcdan doctrine of God's nature and attributes coincides with the Cliristian, inasmuch as he is by both taught to be the creator of all things in heaven and earth, who rules and preserves all things, without beginning, om- nipotent, omniscient, oniniiiresont, and full of mercy. Yet, according to the Mohammedan belief, lie has no oft'spring: " He begetteth not, nor is lie begotten." Xor is JeAis called anything but a prophet and an apostle,