History. — The IMongolians, as a race, are supposed to be the same who, in remote antitpiity, founded what is called the "Median empire" in Lower ChaUUva — an em- pire, according to Rawlinson, that flourished and fell be- tween 2458 and 223-1 B.C., that is, before Nineveli be- came known as a great city. Thus early did some of these nomadic tribes, forsaking their original pastoral liabits, assume the character of a nation. Another great offshoot from this slock founded an empire in China, the earliest date of winch it is impossilile to trace, but which certainly had reached a state of liigh civilization at least 2000 years B.C. In early Greek history they figure as Scytliiaiis, and in late Koman as Huns, carrying terror and desolation over the civilized world. In the Middle Ages they appear as IMongols, Tartars, and Turks. In tlie beginning of the 13th cen- tury Genghis Khan, originally the chief of a small ]\Ion- gol horde, conquered almost the whole of Central and Kastern Asia. His sons and grandsons were equally successful, and In 1240-41 the 3Iongol empire extended from the sea-board of China to the frontiers of Germany and Poland, including Russia and Hungary, and tlic whole of,\sia, with the exceiilion of Asia IMinor, Arabia, India and the Indo-Chinese states, and Nortliern Sibe- ria, This vast empire soon broke up into a number of independent kingdoms, from one of which, Turkestan, arose an()ther tide of Mongol invasion, under the guid- ance of Timftr or Tamerlane, wlio in the latter part of the 14th century reduced Turkestan, Persia, Hindustan, Asia Minor, and (icorgia under bis sway, and broke for a time tlie Turkish ])()wer. On the death of liis son, shah Rokli, tlie Mongol empire was subdivided, and linally absorbed by the Persians and Usbeks ; but an otl'shoot of Timfir's family founded in the IGth century tlie great Mogul empire of Delhi. After the decline of Timftr's empire, the Turkish branch maintained the glory of the race, and spread terror to the very heart of Western Europe. In the Dili century the Magyars, a
MONGOLIA
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MONHEIM
Iribe of Ugrians, also of Mongol extraction, under their leader Arpad, established themselves in Hungarj', where in process of time they became converted to Christian- ity, and founded a kingdom famous in European history. See Georgia; Hungary; Turkey.
Religion. — («) Heathenism. — The primitive religion of the Mongolians was no doubt largely induenced by the inspired faith, if it did not to some extent prevail among them for some time. The earliest traces reveal them as mostly adherents to Shamanism (q.v.). There are, however, among them, according to the different countries in which they reside, and to the several names of which the reader has been referred, various other re- ligions, as Buddhism, Confucianism, Taouism,Jire-icor- ship, payanism of different kinds, Mohammedanism, and Christianity. In Mongolia proper, that species of Buddh- ism known as Lamaism (q. v.) was introduced in the 13th centurj' of the Christian asra, and, like the Buddh- ists of Thibet, they recognise as their spiritual head the grand lama at Lassa. The people are verj' devout, and generous to a fault in their support of religious in- stitutions, and hence the country abounds in well-en- dowed lamasaries, constructed of brick and stone with elegance and solidity, and ornamented with paintings, sculptures, and carvings. " The most famous of these monasteries is that of the great Kuren, on the banks of the river Tula, in the country of the Kalkas. Thirty thousand lamas dwell in the lamasary, and the plain adjoining it is alwaj-s covered with the tents of the pil- grims who resort thither from all parts of Tartary. In these lamasaries a strict monastic discipline is maintain- ed, but each lama is at liberty to acquire property by practicing as physician, by casting horoscopes, or by working as sculptor or painter, or in any occupation not inconsistent with his priestly character. Almost all younger sons of the free Mongols are devoted from in- fancy to the priesthood, and this tendency to monasti- cism is encouraged by the Chinese government, in order to keep down the growth of population among the Mon- gols. Almost every lamasary of the first class possesses a living Buddha, who, like the grand lama of Thibet, is worshipped as an incarnation of the deity. The intlu- ence of these personages is very great; and the Chinese emperors, who are constantly in dread of the Alongols, watch the living Buddhas with constant care, and spare no pains to conciliate them and win over to their inter- est those who manage these deities."
(V) Christianity. — The Nestorians (q. v.), who dwelt in large numbers among the Mongolians, seem to have exerted but little if any intiuence on this heathen peo- ple. What was by the early Christians regarded as an indication of their leaning towards the religion and cidture of the Christian dispensation, proves to have been only a temporary accommodation. The Western or Roman Church has made repeated attempts to con- vert the Mongols. In the 13th century, when their in- vasion threatened to overthrow European society and civilization, the Western pontiff. Innocent IV (1245), sent two embassies, one to charge these sanguinary warriors to desist from their desolating inroads, the other to win them over to Christianity. The first of these, consisting of Dominicans, headed by one named Ascelin (Neander, Kirchenyeschichte, vii, 66), approach- ed the commander-in-chief of the Mongol forces in Per- sia, but was unsuccessful. The other, consisting of Franciscans, headed by an Italian, Johannes de Piano Carpini, a disciple and devoted friend of Francis d'As- sisi, pushed quite to the Tartaric court, and approached the khan in person (1246) ; but though they secured a hearing before the Mongolian throne, they yet failed to accomplish more than that the Mongol chief, like Vladi- mir of Russia, gave a patient hearing to Romanist, Nes- torian, Buddhist, and Mohammedan, who each in their turn sought his conversion and influence. In 1253 Louis IX, hearing of the jMongolian's tendency towards Christianity, despatched another Franciscan, William de jKubruiquis (Neander, vii, 69) ; but he reported that the