2. Monks and Monasteries. — The Russian monasteries sprang mostly out of the neighborhood of hermitages, like their Egyptian prototypes. Russian nionachism was a modification of the Eastern S3'stem. In Russia, as in the East, the monks lived a solitary life, but in their own cells, which they themselves had built within the immediate surroundings of the monastery. With their own hands they worked for the means of subsistence, devoting the rest of their time to solitary spiritual exercises, and assembling only twice a day for common prayers. This solitary way of living was the original sj'stem of Russian monachism, while liv- ing together in convents was introduced in the 14th centurj' only. It never was universally adopted, and both modes of living are practiced to this day. The Russian monasteries are controlled either by an archi- mandrite (q. v.) (i. e. abbot), a hegumen (i. e. prior), or a stroitel (i. e. superior). Convents with stroitels, or superiors, are usually under the care of a larger monastery. At first the monks elected their own su- periors, but afterwards the bishop or regent nominated them. All monasteries were originally under the con- trol of the bishop in whose diocese they were. This strict superintendence, however, soon became onerous ; and already in early times, but especiallj' in the 16th and 17th centuries, we find the more influential con- vents exempted from episcopal jurisdiction, and under the immediate care of the patriarch of Constantinople or of the Russian metropolitan. Those monasteries which are exempt from episcopal jurisdiction, and which are nowada3's under the superintendence of the Synod of St. Petersburg, are called laitropigia or laura; while those under episcopal jurisdiction are named cenohia, monasteria, or erorieka.
Monachism in Russia has three degrees. The first degree comprises the novitiate. The novice does not take any vow upon himself, but has to live according to the monastic regulations ; his dress is a black rhar- so, or coat with a black cape. After a preparation of three years the novice enters the second degree, and becomes a monk. He takes the solemn vows before the archimandrite, changes his name, and receives the tonsure. Men are not allowed to take these vows un- til thej' are thirty years old, while women are not ad- mitted until they have reached their fiftieth year. The third degree comprises the perfect ones. They are dressed in a long black coat, with a wide hood which conceals the face entirely. The peculiarities of this class consist in very strict spiritual exercises, restrain- ing of all bodily appetites for the purpose of mortify- ing the sensual nature, and allowing the spirit to be absorbed in the contemplation of divine things only.
MONKS, EASTERN
502
MONMOREL
They are not allowed to leave the convent, and must renounce all and every connection with the world. | They are veri' highly esteemed, exempt from episco- pal jurisdiction, and stand under the immediate care of the Synod of St. Petersburg. Monks of this third degree are very rare. Different from Western mona- chism, priests and deacons are found among the Rus- sian monks. Very manj' enter the monasteries, not for inclination's or piety's sake, but simply to gain clerical influence and position. For the monks, al- though their learning is small, are looked up to as of superior education, and the monastery is therefore the only road in Russia to important clerical positions. ! The income of the monasteries, which often was enor- mous, was at first under the care of the archimandrite. His administration, however, was subject to the inspec- tion of the bishop. Ivan IV Vasilivitch was the first regent who seized the property of the monasteries at Novgorod in 1500. Peter the Great obliged the mon- asteries to take care of the invalids and poor. The empress Catharine I deprived the archimandrites of their ancient rights, and put the administration of ! monastic goods into the hands of a special committee (172o). This committee was subsequently abolished (1712), and the empress Elizabeth transferred the ad- ministration of monastic incomes to the holy synod. In 17G2 Peter III tried to secularize all convents and monasteries ; but the plan was not executed until 1764, when Catharine II secularized all monasteries with their pecuniary income and vassals, and thereby se- cured to the crown more than 900,000 peasants and enormous riches. The Russian monasteries at present are most of them very poor, and the monks live in apostolical j^overty and simplicitj'. But though this be tiie rule, there are some remarkable exceptions. The 67. Pttershurg Gazette, late in 1871, furnished some interesting statistics as to the revenues of tiie most im- portant monasteries in Russia, from which it is clearly apparent that some of the monasteries of Russia are well provided for in a temporal sense. The Gazette savs that the receipts of the priors of the monasteries of' the first class (lauras) vary from 40,000 to G0,000 rubles (£5000 to £7500), and of the other priors from 1000 to 10,000 rubles. The income of the monastery of Troilzki-Sergiev, near Moscow, which formerly con- tained aliout 100,000 persons, now amounts to 500,000 rubles (£02,500). That of the Kief monastery is even greater, as it derives a considerable profit from the sale of wax-lights. The Alexander-Nevski monastery at St. Petersburg has a special source of revenue, besides its ordinary one, in the shape of a share of all the corn imported into the capital. How large this revenue is may be inferred from the fact that a short time ago the city wished to compound for it by a yearly pay- ment of a million rubles, and that the monastery de- clined the offer. Next to the monasteries of the first class, the largest revenue possessed bj' a monastery in Russia is that of the Iversk chapel in Moscow (a branch of the Perevinsk monastery), whose yearly receipts are calculated on an average at 100,000 rubles. In the ecclesiastical district of Novgorod the wealthiest monastery is that of Vuriev, whose bare capital alone is said to amount to 740,821 rubles.