exertions of Hiklebrand — the man behind the throne. The former of these changes was brought about imme- diately after the accession of pope Nicholas II by au- thority of the second Lateran Council (q. v.), which he summoned A.D. 1059. The decree was ostensibly published to restore the right of election to the Romans, but it contained a remarkable variation from the origi- nal form. The cardinal bishops (seven in number, hold- ing sees in the neighborhood of Rome, and consequently suffragans of the pope as patriarch or metropolitan) were to choose the supreme ()ontiif, with the concurrence first of the cardinal priests and deacons (or ministers of the parish churches of Rome), and afterwards of the laity. Thus elected, the new pope was to bo presented for con- firmation to Henry, " now king and hereafter to be- come emperor," and to such of his successors as should personally obtain that privilege. The decree is trulj' the foundation of that celebrated mode of election in a conclave of cardinals which has ever since determined the headship of the Church (see Concl.vvk ; compare Cart Wright, On Papal Conclaves [Edinb. 18G8, 12mo], p. 11-13). It was intended not only to exclude the citizens, who had, indeed, justly forfeited their primitive right, but as far as possible to prepare the way for an absolute emancipation of the papacy from the imperial control; reserving only a precarious and personal con- cession to the emperors, instead of their ancient legal ynrerogative of confirmation. It was, indeed, provid- ed, in effect, that future emperors should exercise the right of confirmation if they should have previoush' sought and obtained it from the Holy See. But of course an emperor was hardly likeh^ to sue for this privilege; and even should the custom of seeking it be established, occasions would not fail to arise in which popes might feel themselves able and willing to refuse it. This bold innovation was made at a favorable moment, when, in fact, there was no emperor who could protest against it, Nicholas took an oath from his new vassals the Normans, whereby they pledged themselves that after his death they would recognise and defend as pope no other than the one who should be elected by the cardi- nals in accordance with the new regulations. In truth popedom was restored to Italy, to Rome. The great organized and simultaneous effort of the higher clergy to become as it were the chief feudatories, and to choose their monarch, was thus made possible. Yet the de- cree of a council would have proved only a mass of idle words, had not the papacy secured command also of some strong railitarj- force to maintain its independence against domestic and foreign foes. Either the emperor must still dictate, or the Roman barons overawe the election. The pope, with all his magnificent pretensions, was but a defenceless vassal— a vassal dependent on for- eign resources for his maintenance on his throne. The second great act of the pontificate of Nicholas II there- fore was the conversion of the hostile and unbeliev- ing Normans into the faithful allies, the body-guard of the pope. Another important event of the reign of Nicholas II is the controversy with Rerenger of Tours (q. v.) regarding the real presence of Christ in the eucharist. See Tuansubstaxtiation. It was settled favorably to Romanism. Though Berenger afterwards, when beyond the power of his adversaries, recanted and reassumed his former position, the effect of the Lateran decree was, for a time at least, almost to suppress his doctrine. Pope Nicholas II died in 1001. See Vita Nicolai II Pajxv, ex Cardmali A raffonia, in Muratori, Rerum Italicarum Scriptorcs, iii, 301 ; Baronius, Anna- les Ecdesiastici, xvii, 148 ; Jaffe, Regesta poniificum Ro- marwrum, p. 88-1-389 ; Bovver, IHst. of the Popes (see In- dex in vol. vii) ; Riddle, Hist, of the Papacy, ii, 115 sq. ; Milman, Hist, of Latin Christianity, iii, 295 sq. ; Hallam, Middle Ages (Smith's edition), p. 339 sq. ; Hofier, Gesch. der deutschen Pdpste, ii, 295-300 ; Wetzer u. Welte (Ii. C), Kirchen-Lexikon, vii, 579-583. (J. H. W.)
Nicholas III, Pope, was originally Jo/^w Cajetanus, of the noble Roman house of Orsini, and bore the sur- VII.— E