true, bat self-evident." The doctrine directly opposed to nominalism is denominated realism (q. v.), and must be traced back to Plato's system of ideas [see Idealism], or tlic eternal and independent existence of general at- tributes, from which the concrete embodiments were derived. There existed in the divine mind, according to Plato, patterns, models, or archetypes, after which individuals were formed. The archetype circle was the origin of all actual round things. Aristotle de- nied the separate existence of these general forms, and held that they existed only in connection with matter, or with objects in the concrete. The Stoics repudiated universals in both senses. The Aristotelian views con- stituted the scholastic realism, and prevailed until the 11th century, when a reaction took place in favor of the Stoical doctrine, headed by Koscelin of Compiegne and .John the Sophist, and thus gave a vigorous life to the doctrine of nominalism. The doctrine naturally excited great consternation among the schoolmen (q. v.), with whom hitherto all that was real in nature was conceived to depend on these general notions or es- sences. The leading object of the schoolmen was at first not so much to stimulate a spirit of inquiry as to write in defence of the ancient dogmas of the Church. In this capacity they undertook to show (1) that faith and reason are not inconsistent ; or, in other words, that all the supernatural elements of revelation are most truly rational ; they labored (2) to draw together all the several points of Christian doctrine, and con- struct them into one consistent scheme; and (3) they attempted the more rigorous detinition of each sin- gle dogma, pointed out tiie rationale of it, and inves- tigated its relation to the rest. Tliis method of dis- cussion was extended even to the most inscrutable of all the mysteries of faith — the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity; and some of the scholastics did not hesitate to argue that the truth of it is capable of rigorous demon- stration (comp. Klee, Gesch. d. chrisil. Ldire, pt. ii, ch. ii. § 11). The promulgator of nominalism, who was a churchman at Compiegne, underwent much persecution for his opinions, and was even ultimately compelled to retract them as inconsistent with tlie doctrine of the Trinity, as it was then stated, and all who accepted the nominalistic notions were subject to much suspicion for heresy for touching so serious a question as the Trinity. The realistic notions came to be regarded as synony- mous with religious orthodoxy, and nominalism with unbelief. The controversy raged with great violence all through the 12th centurv. Koscelin argued boldly that if, according to the current language of the Church, the essence of the Godhead might be spoken of as one real- ity {una res), the personal distinctness of the three divine hypostases would be constructively denied. To view the Godhead thus was (in Roscelin's eye) to violate the Christian faith ; it was equivalent to saying that the persons of the Trinity were not three distinct subsist- ences (lion tres res), but names, and nothing more, without a counterpart in fact. He urged, accordingly, that, to avoid Sabellianism (q. v.), the doctors of the Church were bound to call the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost three real Beings {tres res) of equal majesty and will. A council held (1092) at Soissons instantly de- nounced the author of these speculations, on the ground that they were nothing else than tritheism (q. v.) ; while Anselm, as the champion of realism, took up his pen to write in its behalf (comp, Schrijckh, Kircheiir/esch. xxviii, 376-384). According to this great Realist, the genus has a true subsistence prior to and independent of the individuals numbered in the class it represents ; particulars arise from universals, being fashioned after these (the unicersaUa ante rem), or modelled on a gen- eral archetype that comprehends the properties of all (comp. Milman, ///,</. Lat. Christ, iii, 247 sq.).
But, thougli for a time suppressed, the Nominalists soon replaced their loss of Koscelin by a man of far more extraordinary power, the learned Abelard, who induced large numbers to desert the realistic standard
by his dialectical skill and eloquence; and, with his fol- lowers, whom he led in a body to Paris, was the occasion' of founding the celebrated university of that city. After his death, the ancient realism was, however, restored to its former supremacy. Thomas Aquinas (q. v.) and Duns Scotus (q. V.) then gave their adhesion to it. Indeed, we do not meet with a prominent Nominalist until the 14tli century, when William Occam, an English Francis- can friar, and a jiupil of Scotus, revived the advocacy of nominalism, which was once more maintained by a number of eminent men, in spite of the hostility of the Church, which went as far as persecution. The contro- versy assumed in this 14th century a theological char- acter; the principal point of difference between the two parties being "the nature of the divine co-operation with the human will," and " the measure of divine grace necessary to salvation." The dispute was so rancorous at one time that the disputants accused each other of having committed the sin of blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, and the public peace was seriously dis- turbed. An edict of Louis H of France prohibited all disputation on such subjects. The Reformation put an end to the controversy on ecclesiastical ground, and it has since been a question simply in philosophy (q. v.). A mid- dle view between nominalism and realism was held liy a few persons when the contest was at its height ; which was that, although general properties have no separate existence in nature, they can be conceived in the mind apart from any concrete embodiment. Thus we may form an idea of a circle irrespective of any individual round body. This view is specious, and is tacitly im- plied in many opinions that have never ceased to be held. To the intermediate doctrine of conceptualism, nominalism is closely allied. It may be called the en- velope of conceptualism, while conceptualism is the let- ter or substance of nominalism. " If nominalism sets out from conceptualism, conceptualism should terminate in nominalism," says M. Cousin {Introd. nux ouvrages iiiMits d'Aheilard [Paris, 1836, 4to], p. 181). " Univer- salia ante rem," is the watchword of the Realists ; " Universalia in re,"of theConceptualists ; "Universalia post rem," of the Nominalists. The Nominalists were called Terminists about the time of the Reformation (Ballantyne, Exam, of the Human Mind, ch. 3, § 4). See Tkrminists. It should be borne in mind, too, that of nominalism itself there are manifest in the history of philosophy two varieties, according as stress is laid on the subjective nature of the concept (sec above allusion to conceptualism), or on the identity of the word emploj'ed to denote the objects comprehended un- der the concept (extreme nominalism, or nominalism in the narrower sense of the term). All these leading types of doctrine appear, either in embryo or with a certain degree of development, in the 0th and 10th centuries; but the more complete expansion, and the dialectical demonstration of them, as well as the sharpest contests of their several supporters, and also the development of the various possible modifications and combinations of them, belong to the period next succeeding. With the appearance of Occam as the leader of Nominalists they may be recognised as the scliool of progress, inquiry', and criticism, out of which the Reformation arose : a school which, however, so far tended towards scepticism that it overvalued the truth which it arrived at by rea- soning, and undervalued that which it received by rev- elation ; thus being disposed to believe only after dem- onstration. In later times the Nominalistic theory was, as has been stated above in the extract from Sir W^. Hamilton, adopted by Hobbes (q. v.), Hume (q. v.), and Dugald Stewart (q. v.). See Thomasius, Oi-atio de Sectn Nominalium (Leips. 1682-1686) ; Meincrs, De No- minalium ac Renliiim initiis (" Commentatt. Soe. Gott." xii, 12) ; Baumgarten-Crusius, Pi-of/r. de vero Scholasti- corum Realium et Nomimdiiun discrimine et seiifeiitia Theoloyica (Jena, 1821, 4to) ; Chladenius, Diss. (res. Jo. Theod. Runneth) de vita et hmresi RosceUiiii (Krlang. 1756, 4to). See also Thesaurus Biog. et BiUioyraphicus