stiern's influence, assisted b}- the queen-mother, that Gustavus Adolphus gave up contracting what in those days would have been considered a mesalliance with Ebba Brahe, and married the gentle and beautiful Marj' Eleonore, a princess of the house of Brandenburg, which proved a mutually happj' union. In 1613 (Jan. IG), as Swedish plenipotentiurj', Oxenstiern signed a treatj^ of peace with Denmark, to give the country an ojjportuni- ty, in a measure, to recover from internal and exter- nal commotions. In 1611; he accompanied the king to Livonia, and soon had the satisfaction (1617) of termi- nating hostilities between Russia and Sweden by an honorable treat}' at Stobowa. In 1621, after the king had departed for a campaign in Poland, he was de- spatched with several regiments to occupy and govern certain districts of Prussia, then under the suzerainty of Poland, which the Swedish arms bad gained, and he filled this post four A'ears to the advantage of the coun- trj'. When, in 1628, Austria and the Catholic league attempted to secure the Baltic coast, he negotiated with the duke of Pomerania and the king of Denmark to re- place or re-enforce the Danish garrison of Stralsuud by Swedish troops, and thus frustrated all eftbrts to capt- ure that stronghold, so that AVallenstein, the imperial general, who had boasted that he would take that city even if it were bound Uy chains to the sky, had to beat an inglorious retreat. He succeeded also, supported by the mediation of England and France, in effecting an armistice for six years with Poland. All these pro- ceedings appear as arrangements preparatory to that grander undertaking of his administration — an expedi- tion into German}'. The pious and chivalrous king had long meditated it, and was prevented only by the cautious remonstrance of his minister; but now the measure was determined on, alike from the policy of self-preservation and the moral motive of succoring the sorely oppressed co-religionists who, since 1618, were waging an unequal struggle against the combined forces of Romanism. It is beyond our design here to delineate the origin and progress of the Thirty-years War (q. v.) ; we have only to sketch the course pur- sued by the great chancellor of Sweden. We will state briefl}' : Gustavus Adolphus landed in July, 1G30, on the German coast with 15,000 choice troops, accom- panied by his minister. Oxenstiern had put all his energy into the execution of the plan, procuring men, money, and material ; and his diplomatic talent had ample scope to overcome the lukewarmness and jeal- ousy of the German Protestant princes. Their united activity restored again the fortunes of Protestantism. Gustavus Adolphus advanced into the heart of Ger- many as in triumph, defeated Tilly near Leipsic, and fell, Nov. 16, 1632, on the bloody field of Liitzen, Bcrnhard of Saxe-Weimar finishing the battle victori- ouslj' against Wallenstein. The death of the king, well calculated greatlj- to encourage one and to dismay the other of the contending parties, did not move Ox- enstiern to give up the cause as lost, though it added much to his embarrassments and responsibilities. Here maj' also lie remarked, as a proof of the authoritj' and confidence he enjoyed at home, that when he sent what purported to be the testament of the late king, and drawn up by iiim, liut not signed by the roj'al hand, it was accepted as binding, and its tenor observed by the Swedish Diet. Oxenstiern was appointed a dele- gate to Germany with full powers to make an}' arrange- ment which he miglit deem best for the welfare of his country. He immediately exerted himself to increase the number and strength of the armies in the field, and went to Dresden and Berlin to concert measures for the effectual continuation of the war. In March, 163.3, he convened a congress of the German princes at Heilbronn, and by that assembly was declared di- rector of the evangelical alliance. Also Holland and France, from which latter Sweden had been subsidized with money since Jan. 1, 1631, he tried to interest and stir up to more energetic assistance. At his re-
turn to Saxony (1634), finding affairs in the saddest disorder — the confederates vacillating, the soldiers dis- satisfied and lost to all discipline, and after the disaster of Nordlingen almost all despairing, even the elector of Saxony openly gone over to the enemy — his mind, rich in resources even in these perplexing circumstances, discovered waj's and means to rescue his party from imminent ruin. This accomplished (1636), he returned to Sweden, whence he had been absent for ten years. Longing for a more quiet sphere of action, he resigned in the first session of the senate he attended his pleni- potentiarj' powers, with the advice never to confide so much power as he had been intrusted with to any one person, lest it might be abused ; he retained only his seat as chancellor of the kingdom, and as one of the five guardians of the only child and daugliter of Gus- tavus Adolphus, who was but seven j'ears old at the time of his death. Concerning the latter he proved a faithful Mentor, taking particular pains to give her dail}' lessons in the science of government and inter- ■ national law, and found in Christina an apt and quick- witted pupil. In this connection may be mentioned the proposal of Richelieu — who wished to render him more pliable for his own ends, and promised him all the French influence — to transfer the crown of Sweden by a marriage of one of Oxenstiern's sons with the royal heiress into his own famil}-. The Swedish chan- cellor resisted the alluring temptation and declined the offer. Meanwhile the politico-religious contest in German}' was maintained on the part of Sweden by the generals Horn, Baner, and Torstenson with varying success. In 1615 he sent his son John there to watch more closely the interests of Sweden, and assist in bringing about a satisfactory settlement. Neither party gave up until both were nearlv exhausted. After protracted negotiations at Miinster and Osna- brlick, they agreed to what is styled the Peace of Westphalia (q. v.), which, besides other political changes, established the principle of at least partial tolerance in religious matters (signed Oct. 24, 1648). Sweden, universally and uniformly Lutheran, received as indemnity five millions of thalers, a part of Pom- erania, Bremen, Yerden, and Wismar. In 1643 Ox- enstiern secretly organized a war with Denmark, which had subjected Sweden to long-standing humili- ations, and by skilful management obtained the advan- tage of his adversary. In the negotiations necessi- tated in consequence, Oxenstiern, who attended them personally, extorted in the peace of Bromsebro the most favorable terms, ending with an increase of ter- ritory. Christina, who since December, 1644, had be- come queen of Sweden, acknowledged his services by raising him to the rank of a count (of Sodermark), and the University of Upsala elected him its chancellor. Engrossed as he was with the business of foreign rela- tions, he was by no means unmindful of domestic af- fairs and home rule. In 1684 he submitted to the Swedish Diet a constitution, which was considered a masterpiece of statesmanship, and was gladly accept- ed. He abolished many oppressive taxes, urged econ- omy in administration, favored and fostered all kinds of industry, and caused canals to be constructed, in order to facilitate intercourse in the interior and commerce with other nations. Nor was he backward in provid- ing for the moral and intellectual advancement of the people ; he was instrumental in founding the univer- sities of Abo and Dorpat, and many new schools and academies, five of which he established out of his own purse. The last years of his life were much embit- tered by the conduct of the young queen, who, en- dowed with high intelligence and knowledge, might have shone a star of the first magnitude in the north of Europe ; but, disregarding older and wiser counsels, under the influence of unworthy favorites she indulged in passions and caprices that created general discon- tent. Yet when made aware of the public sentiment she decided to resign, and nominated her cousin her