just and equitable ; road;;, bridges, caravanfaries, and other conveniences for trade were constructed at im- mense expense, and the improvement and ornamenta- tion of tile towns were not neglected. Ispahan more than doubled its population during his reign. His tolerance was reniarkabla, considering both tlie opin- ions of his ancestors and subjects ; for lie encour.tged the Armenian Christians to settle in the country, well knowing that their peaceable and industrious habits would help to advance the prosperity of his kingdom. His successors, shah Sufi (1G28-1G41), shah Abbas II (1641-16G6), and shah Soliman (IGGG-lGOi), were un- distinguished by an}' remarkable talents, but the for- mer two were sensible and judicious rulers, and ad- vanced the prosperity of their subjects. During the reign of sultan Hussein (1694-1722), a weak and bigot- ed fool, priests and slaves were elevated to tlie most important and responsible otBces of the empire, and all who rejected the tenets of the Shiites were persecuted. The consequence was a general discontent, of which the Afghans took advantage bj- declaring their inde- pendence, and seizing Candahar (1709). Their able leader, Mir Vais, died in 1715; but his successors were worthy of him, and one of them, Mahmud, in- vaded Persia (1722), defeated Hussein's armies, and besieged the king in Ispahan, till the inhabitants were reduced to the extremity of distress. Hussein then abdicated the throne in favor of iiis conqueror, who, on his accession, immediately devoted his energies to al- leviate the distresses and gain tlie confidence of his new sui)jects, in both of which objects he thorouglily succeeded. Becoming insane, he was deposed in 1725 by his brother Ashraf (1725-1729) ; but the atrocious tyranny of the latter was speedily put an end to by the celebrated Nadir Shah, who first raised Tamasp (1729-1732) and his son Abbas II (1732-1736), of the Suffdvean race, to the throne, and then, on some friv- olous pretext, deposed liim, and seized the sceptre (1736-1747). But on his death anarchy again re- turned ; the country was horriblj' devastated by the rival claimants to the throne ; Afghanistan and Beloo- chistan finally separated from Persia, and the country was split up into a number of small independent states until 1755, when a Kurd, named Kerim Khan (1755- 1779), abolished this state of affairs, re-established peace and unity in Western Persia, and by his wis- dom, justice, and warlike talents acquired the esteem of his subjects and the i-espect of neighboring states. After the usual contests for the succession, accom- panied with the usual barbarities and devastations, Kerim was succeeded in 1784 by Ali-Murad, Jaaf- ar, and Luft-Ali, during whose reigns Mazanderan became independent under Aga-Mohammed, a Turko- man eunuch of the Kajar race, who repeatedly defeat- ed the royal armies, and ended by depriving Luft-Ali of his crown (1795). The great eunuch-king (as he is frequently called), who founded the present dynasty, on his accession announced his intention of restoring the kingdom as it had been established by Kerim Khan, and accordingly invaded Kliorassan and Geor- gia, subduing the former country almost without ef- fort. The Georgians besought the aid of Russia; but the Persian monarch, with terrible promptitude, poured his army like a torrent into the countr}', and devastat- ed it with fire and sword; his con(juest was, however, hardly completed, when he was assassinated, JMay 14, 1797. His nephew, Futteh-Ali (1797-1834), after nu- merous conflicts, full}' established his authority', and completely subdued the i-ebellious tribes in Khorassan. but the great commotions in Western Eurojie produced for him bitter fruits. He was dragged into a war w ith Russia soon after his accession, and, by a treaty con- cluded in 1791, surrendered to that power Derbend and several districts on the Kur. In 1802 Georgia was declared to be a Russian province. War with Russia was recommencsd by Persia, at the instigation of France ; and, after two years of conflicts disastrous
to the Persians, the treaty of Gulistan (Oct. 12, 1813) gave to Russia all the Persian possessions to the north of Armenia, and the right of navigation in the Caspian Sea. In 1826 a third war, equally unfortunate for Persia, was commenced with the same power, and cost Persia the remainder of its possessions in Armenia, with Erivan, and a sum of 18,000,000 rubles for the expenses of the war. The severity exercised in pro- curing this sum by taxation so exasperated the people that they rose in insurrection (Oct. 12, 1829), and mur- dered the Russian ambassador, his wife, and almost all who belonged to or were connected with the Russian legation. The most humiliating concessions to Rus- sia, and the punishment by mutilation of 1500 of the rioters, alone averted war. The death of the crown- prince, Abbas-Mirza, in 1833, seemed to give the final blow to the declining fortunes of Persia, for he was the onl}' man who seriously attempted to raise his countiy from the state of abasement into which it had fallen. Bj' the assistance of Russia and Britain, Mohammed Shah (1834-1848), the S(ui of Abbas-Mirza, obtained the crown, but the rebellions of his uncles, and the ri- valry of Russia and Britain (the former being gener- ally successful) at the Persian court, hastened the de- moralization of the country. IMohammed was com- pelled to grant (184G) to Russia the privilege of build- ing ships of war at Resht and Astrabad, and to agree to suiTender all Russian deserters, and Persia became thus more and more dependent on its powerful neigh- bor. Nazir-uddin succeeded to the throne on his fa- ther's death in 1848 ; and the new government an- nounced energetic reforms, reduction of imposts, etc., but limited itself to these fine promises, and on the con- trary, augmented the taxes, suft'ered the roads, bridges, and other public works to go to ruin, squandered the public money, and summarily disposed of all who protested against their acts. In October, 185G, the Persians took Herat, a town for the permanent pos- session of which they had striven for a long series of years ; and having tlius violated the terms of a treaty with Britain, war was declared against them, and a British army was landed on the coast of the gulf, which, under generals Outram and Havelock, repeat- edly defeated the Persians, and coinpidled them to re- store Herat (Julj', 1857). Since that time treaties of commerce have been concluded with the leading Eu- ropean powers; and Russia, Great Britain, Turkey, France, and Italy have consuls in the chief towns, and, with the exception of Italy, are represented by ministers at the court of Teheran.