IV. Comparison of the Shemitic Languages u-ilh One Another. — When we enter on the consideration of the mutual relation, we find that by far the richest and most developed of the Shemitic languages is that of the South, known to us as
1. The A rubic. — Referring the readerto the art. Ahabic Language in this Cyclopcedia, we will only make a few general remarks. Before the time of Mohammed it was confined to Arabia, and scarcely cultivated except in poetry; but along with Islam it has spread it.self over the greater part of Asia and Africa, and has unfolded its great wealth in a very comprehensive literature, which extends to almost all the domains of knowledge.
Even in the earliest times it is possible that this dia- lect was separated from those with which it is allied, though the traces of this are few. The most marked is the form TniT^bx ((Jen. x, 26), the designation of a district of Arabia Felix, having the article prefixed, whicli has also been preserved elsewhere in .some He- brew documents, as in Prov. xxx, 31, C^ipPN ; Josh, xv,
SIIEMITIC LANGUAGES
656
SHEMITIC LANGUAGES
30; conip. 1 Chron. iv, 29. We know, also, that already in the time of Solomon the wisdom of the Arabs was hijrhly prized; and that enigmas, and so, at least, the beginnini; of poesy, were to be found in Yemen, or rath- er in .Sabiea (1 Kings iv, 30; x, 1 sq.).
In the beginning it probably had forms which were simpler and more like the Hebrew than those in which it is known to us, which have been cultivateil to the very uttermost; but soon the one language fell to pieces, as the many independent tribes formed tlieir several di- alects, of which the Himiii'ritic in Yemen was strongly marked by differences from the language of Central Arabia, being simpler, and so more nearly allied to the Hebrew. But when the Himyerite kingdom fell, this dialect was compelled to yield to that of Mecca (the Modurensitic or Koraishil ic) . which liad become a writ- ten form of speech before Mohammed's time, and is in the Koran (Sura xvi, 103) named the Ai-abic langiuu/e, Kar i:t,oxi]v. In this dialect the entire Arabic liter- ature is composed. Then it was gradually supplanted by the present commonly spoken language, which has not only adopted many foreign words, Turkish especial- ly, but has also lost the variety of forms which it pos- sessed and the very capacity for forming others, and thus has returned nearer to the ancient simplicity as well as to the Hebrew and Aramaic.
From the intimate connection from the earliest times between South Arabia and Etliiopia it has arisen that we have in the Ethiopic language (q. v.) a remnant of the old Ilimyeritic dialect, lost even to the Arabic itself. In this ancient written language (the Geez) we possess a translation of the Bible and other ecclesi- astical writings, of which the most important is the translation of tlie book of Enoch. The language has a simpler character than the more cultivated Arabic, and approaches more to the Hebrew and Aramaic idiom. In the 14th century it was supplanted by Amharic, and is now only a learned language.
The literature of the Arabic language being very rich, we shall only mention here, by way of supplement to the article Akauic Languauk in this Cyclopmdia, the works published recently in so far as they have come under our observation ;
A. GraviviarH of both tlie Ancient and Mnrlern Arabic. — Bresnier, Cotirs I'latique ct Theoriqite dc la Langiie Arabe, etc. (Al^er. IS.W); id. Gramniaire Arahc h'Iniinitaire, etc. { ibid. IStiO ) ; Mohained C'adi, La Laii'inc .1 ndie, etc. (Cai- ro, lSti2, 'A vols.) ; Caspnri, Grammatik <lfr niab. Sprnche (Leips. 1866): Fahrat, Grammaire Arab,' (Heirfit, 18C5) ; F:iris-el-Shidiak, A Practical Grammar nftlie A rabic Lan- oiMJi/f, etc (Lond. 1806) ; Freytag, Eiiii'ifiuni in das .Stii- aiuin der arab. Sprache (Bonn, ISCl) ; (Toldenthal, Gram- maire Arahe icrite en Hehren, etc. (Vienna, IS.^7) ; Gor- pnos. fours d'Arabe VuUjaire (Paris, 1S04, 2 pts.) ; Hassan, Kiirzyefatinle Grammatik der vnltj ir-arabinchen Sprache (Vienna, 1809); Leilner, Introduction to a I'hilnsopliical Grammar of Arabic (Lahore, 1870); Mallouf, Fcray dc Cliarfpiive, on Abreqe de Grammaire Arabe, etc. (Smyrna, 18!i4); Narul Kiia, Xaxif El Yazitihij (Beirtit, iSOli ), an Arabic gnnninar in Arabic ; Newnnin, A Handbixik of Modern Arabic (Lond. IStiO); Kaabe, Gerneiiischaftliclie Grammatik der arabixclien ii. der semitinclien •Sprachen (Leips. 1874); Sapeto, Grammalica Araba Volf/are (Flur- ence, 1867); itchier, Gramniaire Arabe (Leips. 1862); Zschokke, InKti/titionex Ktintlamentalen Linfitice Arabicix (Vienna, 1869); Wolff, Arabixcher Drariimian (Leip.s. 1867).
B. hictionnriex. — Hochtor, iJictionnaire Fran'^-aix- Arabe, etc. (Paris, 1S64); lintrxtx al lluxtiimi ( Heiifit, 1866-70, 2 vols, fill.; an abridged edition, ibid. 1807-70), an Aral)ic dictionary explained in Arabic; ('a\\\z>\\'\^, Le Compaiinon de Tinix, OH IHctionnair' J'oloalotte, etc. ('rnrin, 1S64-70, 2 vols.); C'lierlionnean, Dictionnaire h'ranruix- Arabe (Par. l'^72 ) ; \l(:\it\., IJictionnaire de I'oche I-'ran.aix- Arabe et Arabe-Franfaix (W'^cr. 1870); Henry. Dutionnnirr h'rnn- laix-Aralie ( lieirrit, 1867); Kaznnircki, Dictionnaire Arahe-Fran'-aix, etc. ( Pariw, 1800, 2 vol)'.); Maicel, Die- tionnaire Fruu^aix-A rabc. den DialeclcH yiihiaireH ( ibid. 1S6!I); Newman, A Dirtimmry of Modern Arabic (Lond. 1870, 2 vols.): Puulmier, IJictionnaire Fran^aix- A rabe (Piirin, 1872); Roland de Biissy, Petit Diclionnaire Fran- tnix-Aralte et Arabe-Franraix (Altrer. Is(i7); Schiapiirelli,
X'licalnilixta in Arabico (VUnx'nCK, \^1\): Wahrmund, Haiui- vi'mtrrhoch der arabixclien tind dcutxclicn Sjiraclie (Giesscn, 1874, 2 vols.).