Universalism almost wholly disappeared during the period known as the Dark Ages, although there are oc- casional glimpses of it even in the mutilated records which the papal Church has permitted to descend to us. In the 7th century, Maxiraus, the Greek monk and confessor, taught Universalism ; in the 8th, Clem- ent of Ireland was deposed from the priesthood for teaching that when Christ descended into hell he re- stored all the damned; while in the 9th, John Scotus Erigcna, a famous |)hilc)S(i])lier who stood at the head of the learned of the court of France, was a bold de- fender of Universalism. In the 11th century, the Albi- genses were, according to papal authorities, L^niversal- ists; in the 12th, Eaynold, abbot of St. Martin's, in France, was charged before a council with holding "that all men will eventually be saved;" in the 13th, Solomon, bishop of Bassorah, discussed the question of universal salvation, answering it in the affirmative. The Lollards in the 14th century taught Universalism in Bohemia and Austria; and at the same period a council convened by Langinan, archbishop of Canter-
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bury, Ejave judgment against Universalism as one of tlie heresies then taught in that province. In the ear- ly part of tlie 15th century, a sect called "Men of Un- derstanding" taught Universalism in Flanders, advo- cating it on the ground of the (Jerman Mystics, as did Tauler of Strasburg, and John Wessel, who, with oth- ers, have been called " the Reformers before the Ref- ormation," whose writings Luther industriously studied and greatly admired.
•2. In Modern Times. — Witli the Reformation, Uni- versalism made a fresh appearance early in tlie 16th century, chietly among some of the Anabaptist sects. The seventeenth article of the Augustine Confession, 1530, was expressly framed to " condemn the Anabap- tists, who maintain that there shall be an end to tbe punishments of tbe damned and of tbe devils." Denk, Retzer, and Stanislaus Pannonius were the most emi- nent defenders of Universalism at this period. Later in the century, Samuel Huber, divinity professor at Wittenberg, taught Universalism, it is alleged by Span- heim ; and because, saj'S Mosbeim, he would not go back to the old methods of teaching, " be was compelled to relinquish his office and go into exile." Early in the 17th century, Ernest Sooner, professor of philosophy at Altorf, published "a theological and phHosopbical dem- onstration that the endless punishment of the wicked Avould argue, not the justice, but the injustice, of God." John William Petersen, at one time court preacher at Lutin, and subsequentl}' superintendent at Lunenberg, adopted and defended Universalism with such zeal that he was cited before the consistory, and, as he could not conscientiously renounce his convictions, was de- prived of his office and forcetl into private life. In his retirement he wrote and published three folio volumes on Universalism, entitled Musterion Apoktttastaseds Pantoii. in which he mentions many who had defended that doctrine. Tlie volumes appeared between the years 1700 and 1710. They opened a century of spir- ited controversy, of which Mosheim says, "The points of theology which had been controverted in the 17th century were destined to excite keener disputes in the 18th, such ' as the eternity of hell torments, and the final restoration of all intelligent beings to order, perfection, and happiness.'" Dietelmair, an opponent of Univer- salism, wrote on its history about the middle of this century. In the preface to his work he speaks of the •'contests which raged vehemently enough within the verj' bounds of the orthodox Church in the end of the last century and the beginning of the present." Among the defences of Universalism contained in the first vol- ume of Petersen's work was the Ecerlusting Gospel, at- tributed to Paul Siegvolk, whicli was but an assumed name of George Klein-Nicolai, deposed for his Univer- salism as preacher of Friessdorf. He published other works in defence of Universalism, but the most ra()id and lasting popularity belonged to the Krerlasting Gos- pel, which in fortj'-five years passed through five edi- tions in Germany. In 1726 John Henry Haug, pro- fessor at Strasburg, having procured the assistance of Dr. Ernest Christoph Hochman, Christian Dippel, Count De Marcey, and others, commenced the publication of the Berlehurger Bihel, an entirely new translation and commentary of the Holy Scriptures. They made themselves familiar with all the writings of the Mys- tics, and in their great work taught and defended Uni- versalism from the Mystical standpoint. Their work fills eight large folio volumes, the last of which was published in 1742. Strong persecution assailing them, and no printer being willing to risk his office in doing their work, they were compelled to purchase their own type and a small press. When the Church they had established was at last broken up by their enemies, the members fled to America, taking their press with them, and it was set up by Christopher Sower in German- town, Pa. One of De Marcey's intimate friends was (ieorge De Benneville, born of French parents in Lon- don in 1703. Before he was twenty years of age he
commenced preaching in France, where he was arrests ed and condemneil to die, but was reprieved on the scaf- fold by Louis XV. Making his way into Germany, he there preached Universalism several years, and then came to America. In 1727 appeared Ludvig Gerhard's Complete System of the Euerlasting Gospel of the Rest^- ration of A II Things, together vnth the Baseless Opposite Doctrine of Eternal Damnation, The author was ac one time professor of theology in the University of Rostock, and his publication called forth, according to Walch, no less than fourteen volumes in reply. .Jung- Stilling, in the latter part of the 18th century, an able defender of Christianity against German rationalism, was an ardent and eminent Universalist. Prof. Tho- luck wrote, in 1835, that this doctrine "came particular- ly into notice through Jung-Stilling, that eminent man who was a particular instrument in the hand of (iod for keeping up evangelical truth in the latter part of tbe former century, and at the same time a strong pa- tron to that doctrine." During the present century, Universalism has made rapid progress in Germany. Olshausen says of it that it " has, no doubt, a deep root in noble minds, and is the expression of a heart-felt de- sire for a perfect harmony of the creation." Dr. D wight wrote in 1829 "The doctrine of the eternity of fut- ure punishment is almost universally rejected." Sim- ilar testimony was borne by Prof. Sears in 1834 : " The current hypothesis is that in the middle state, interven- ing between death and the resurrection, the righteous will gradually attain to perfection; and that to all the wicked, whether men or angels, the Gospel will be preached, and that they will ultimately accept it and be restored."