xlvii, 31), "In this passage .some vainly assert that Ja- cob adored the top of Joseph's sceptre ; . . . for in the Hebrew the reading is quite different. Israel adored at the head of the bed (adoravit Israel ad caput lectuli)." See English Vkksions.
X. Literature. — The chief original works bearing on the Vulgate generally' are, Simon, llistoire Critique du V. T. 1(578-85; id. A'. T, 1G89-03 ; Ilody, I)e Bibliorum Textibus Orujinalibus (Oxon. 1705) ; Martianay, //iero??. Opp. (Paris, 1(593), with the iirefaces and additions of Vallarsi ( Verona, 1734) and Mattel (Venice, 17G7) ; Bian- ciiini {Blaiu-hinus, not Blanchini), Vindicim Canon. SS. Vuhj. Lai. Edit. (Rome, 1740) ; Bukentop, Lux de Luce (Bruxellis, 1710); Sabatier, Bibl. S,S. Lot. Vers. Ant. (Remis, 1743); Van Ess, I'raymatisch-kritische Gesch.d. Vulg. {'V'uh. 1824); Vercellone, Varice Lectiones Vulff. Lat. Bibliorum (tom. i, Roma;, 18(50; torn, ii, pars prior,. I8()2). In addition to these, there are the controversial works of Mariana, Bellarmine, Whitaker, Fulke, etc., and numerous essays by Calmet, D. Schulz, Fleck, Riegler, etc.; and in the New Test, the labors of Bentlcy, Sanftl, Griesbach, Schulz, Lachmann, 'I'regelles, and Tischen- dorf have collected a great amount <if critical materials. But it is not too much to say that the noble work of Vercellone has made an epoch in the study of the Vul- gate, and the chief results which follow from the first instalment of his collations are here for the first time incorporated in its histor3% See also Riegler, Gesch. der Vulgata (Sulzb. 1820); Brunati, Be Vulgata (Vien. 1825); Kaulen, Gesch. der Vuh/atu ( Mentz, 18(59); Ronsch. ]tala und Vulijata (Marb. 1869). See Latin Veksions.
Vulgivaga, in Itoman mythology, is a surname of Venus, iiii the lowly, in contrast with Urania, the heav- enly. She favored the longings and desires of men which were wrongfully designated by the name of love.
Vulture is the rendering, in the A. V., of two Heb.
words: 1. nxn, dadh (only in Lev. xi, 14; Sept. yvi\/; Vulg. milrus ; the parallel passage, Deut. xiv, 13, has in the corresponding position ilN"i, radh, which may be an erroneous transcription; Sept. yv'^; Vulg. ixion; A. V. "glede"), or iT^n, daydh (only Deut. xiv, 13, 'Iktiv; milcus ; Isa. xxxiv, 34, eXa(po(: ; milvus) ; and 2. iTsN:, ayah (onh' in Job xxviii, 7, yv^p; vultvr; Lev. xi, 14, 'iKTiv ; vultur ; A. V. " kite ;" Deut. xiv, 13, Sept. omits ; Vulg. milvus ; A. V. " kite'").
I. There seems to be no doubt that the A. V. transla- tion is incorrect, and that the original words refer to some of the smaller species of raptorial birds, as kites or buzzards. IT'n {daydh} is evidenth' synonymous with Arab, h'dayah, the vernacular for the "kite" in North Africa, and without the epithet " red" for the black kite especially. Bochart {f/ieroz. ii, 195) explains it Vul- tur niyer. The Samaritan and all other Eastern ver- sions agree in rendering it "kite." n*X {ayah") is yet more certainly referable to this bird, which, in other passages, it is taken to represent. Bochart {ibid, ii, 193) says it is the same bird which the Arabs call yaya. from its cry; but does not state what species this is, supposing it, apparently, to be the magpie, the Arab name for which, however, is el-ayaay.
There are two very different species of bird comprised under the English term vulture: the griffon {Gypsful- vus, Sav.), Arab, nesr ; Heb. TCr2, nesher ; invariably rendered "eagle" in the A. V. ; and the percnopter, or Egyptian vulture {Neophron percnopterus, Sav.), Arab. rakhma ; Heb. Dn"!, rac^am,- rendered " gier-eagle" in the A. V. The identity of the Hebrew and Arabic terms in these cases can scarcely be questioned. However de- grading the substitution of the ignoble vulture for the royal eagle may at first sight appear in many passages, it must be borne in mind that the griffon is in all its movements and characteristics a majestic and royal bird,
VULTURE
840
VULTURE
Esyptian Vulture {XeopJiron percnopterns).
the largest and most powerful which is seen on the wing in Palestine, and far surpassing the eagle in size and power. Its only rival in these respects is the bearded vulture, or Lammeryeyer, a more uncommon bird every- where, and which, since it is not, like the grifiFoii, bald on the head and neck, cannot be referred to as nesher (see Mic. i, IG). Very difFerent is the slovenly and cow- ardly Egyptian vulture {Xeophrun percnopterus), the familiar scavenger of all Oriental towns and villages, protected for its useful habits, but loathed and despised, till its name has become a term of reproach, like that of the dog or the swine. The species of vulture, prop- erly so called, have the head naked or downy, the crop external, and very long wings ; they all have an oflfen- sive smell, and we know of none that even the scaven- ger-ants will eat. When dead they lie on the ground vnitouched till the sun has dried them into mummies. Late Western commentators, anxious to distinguish ea- gles from vultures, have asstnned that the tirst-mention- ed never feed on carcasses; and, judging the whole fam- ily of vultures by the group of carrion-eaters alone, have insinuated that the latter do not attack a living prey. In both cases they are in error; with some exceptions, eagles follow armies, though not so abundantly as vult- ures ; and vultures attack living prey jjrovided with ^imall means of defence or of little weight; but their talons having no means of grasping with energy, or of seriously wounding with the claws, tliev devour their prey on the spot, while the eagle carries it aloft, ami thence is more liable to be stung by a serpent not en- tirely liisabled than the vtdture, who cruslies the head of all reptiles it preys upon. See Eaglk.