similar idea; the angels of the nations have a relation of solidarity with their peoples, and God punishes them before He punishes the nations themselves (Weber, System der pal. Theol., 1880, p. 165). In the N.T. the angels of the seven churches in the Apocalypse are to be interpreted in a similar way.
From the functions which the angels exercise it might be expected that ethical distinctions would not be made prominent. In the older Biblical literature there is no reference to evil spirits, in the modern sense of the term. The angels are instruments to effect Yahweh's will. They are good or evil not in virtue of intrinsic character, but of the mission on which they may be sent. The “angels of evil” who bring the plagues on Egypt (Ps. Ixxviii. 49), the “destroyer” who smites the first born (Ex. xii. 23), the evil spirit that troubles Saul, the angel that slays the Israelites (2 Sam. xxiv. 16, 17), or Sennacherib’s army with the pestilence, the lying spirit in the mouth of Ahab’s prophets, the cynical Satan who smites Job in property, family and person to prove that he does not serve God for nought, all alike belong to the heavenly host and are God’s servants, who live to do His will. They are evil so far as their mission is to inflict evil. Our distinction between good and evil angels is unknown; moral features, if present, are rudimentary. When they are called the “ holy ones"’ no ethical reference is intended, but simply their consecration to the service of God. Immoral actions are attributed to them. Thus the sons of God have children by the daughters of men (Gen. vi. 1-4), and the host of the high ones on high have to be visited with punishment for the wrongs done by the kingdoms under their charge (Isa. xxiv. 21). In Ps. lxxxii. the Elohim are rebuked by God in the heavenly assembly for their unrighteous rule, and this is so also in Ps. lviii. In Job we have similar thoughts. Twice Eliphaz insists on the imperfection of the angels, once in his wonderful description of the spirit who said to him, “ Behold He putteth no trust in His servants, and His angels He chargeth with folly’ (iv. 18); and again, speaking for himself, “‘ Behold He putteth no trust in His holy ones; yea the heavens are not clean in His sight” (xv. 15). (Similarly Job himself, xxi. 22, though Duhm corrects the text.) Bildad also says that God “ maketh peace in His high places,”’ and that “the stars are not pure in His sight” (xxv. 2, 5). In later Jewish theology, when the distinction of angels and demons has become explicit, the angels are frequently represented as far from perfect. The proof of this may be seen in Weber. The following points may be selected for mention. The angels envied Israel the Law; “the angels of ministry coveted it, and it was concealed from them”’. On Sinai God gave Moses the