§ 65. ST. BERNARD OF CLAIRVAUX. 355
denying their genuineness, and seeks to explain them by the conditions of the age and the imposing personality of Ber nard as in the case of those possessed with evil spirits.1 A presumption against the miracles of Bernard, which can hardly be put aside, is the commonness of miracles in the mediaeval convent and in the lives of eminent men like Norbert, not to speak of the miracles wrought at shrines, as at the shrine of Thomas a Becket and by contact with relics. On the other hand, there are few mortal men whom miracles would so befit as Bernard.
Bernard's activity was marked, all through, by a practical consideration for the needs of life, and his writings are full of useful suggestions adapted to help and ameliorate human conditions. He was a student by preference, but there were men in his day of more scholastic attainments than he. And yet in the department of speculative and controversial the ology his writings also have their value. In his work on the Freedom of the Will2 he advocated the position that the power to do good was lost by sin, and prevenient grace is required to incline the will to holiness. In his controversy with Abselard he developed his views on the Trinity and the atonement. In some of his positions he was out of accord with the theology and practice of the Roman Com munion. He denied the immaculate conception of Mary3 and accepted foot washing as one of the sacraments. In his views on baptism he was as liberal as the most liberal of his age in declaring that baptism was not indispensable to sal vation when the opportunity is not afforded.4
1 " When such works," Neander says in his history, " appear in connection with a governing Christian temper actuated by the spirit of love, they may perhaps be properly regarded as solitary workings of that higher power of life which Christ introduced into human nature." These words are adopted by Dr. Storrs, who says " it cannot be doubted that a most extraordinary force operated through Bernard on those who sought his assistance." Life of Bernard, p. 199 sq. 3 Ep^ 174; Migne, 182, 332.
2 De gratia et libero arbitrio. * De baptismo aliisque questionibus.
856 THE MIDDLE AGES. A.D. 1049-1294.
Severe at times as Bernard, the Churchman, from the standpoint of this tolerant age seems to be, the testimonies to his exalted moral eminence are too weighty to be set aside. Bernard's own writings give the final and abundant proof of his ethical quality. It shines through his works on personal religion, all those treatises and sermons which give him a place in the front rank of the mystics of all ages.1
William of St. Thierry, himself no mean theological writer, felt that in visiting Bernard's cell he had been " at the very altar of God." Joachim of Flore praised him in enthusiastic language and evidently regarded him as the model monk.3 The impression upon Hildegard, the proph etess of the Rhine, was the same.4 In his Memoir of St. Malachy, Bernard, as has been said, put "an image of his own beautiful and ardent soul."5 No one but a deeply religious character could have written such a life. Malachy, the Irish archbishop, visited Clairvaux twice and on the second visit he remained to die, 1148. Bernard wrote : —
" Though he came from the West, he was truly the dayspring on high to us. With psalms and hymns and spiritual songs we followed our friend on his heavenward journey. He was taken by angels out of our hands. Truly he fell asleep. All eyes were fixed upon him, yet none could say when the spirit took its flight. When he was dead, we thought him to be alive ; while yet alive, we thought him to be dead.6 The same brightness and serenity were ever visible. Sorrow was changed into joy, faith had triumphed. He has entered into the joy of the Lord, and who am I to make lamentation over him? We pray, O Lord, that he who was our guest may be our leader, that we may reign with Thee and him for evermore. Amen."
1 See chapter on Mysticism.
2 Domus ipsa incutiebat reverentiam sui ac si ingrederer ad altare Dei, Vitaprima, VII. 33; Migne, 185, 246.
3 Concordia, V. 38. See Schott, Die Gcdanken des Abtes Joachim, Brieger's Zeitschrift, 1902, 171.
4 Hildegard's Works, Ep., 29 ; Migne, 197, 189.
5 Morison, p. 242.
6 Mortuus vivere et vivens mortuus putabatur, Vita 8t. Malachy, XXXI. 74 ; Migne, 185, 1116. Tender as he is to his Irish friend, Bernard described the Irish people as utter barbarians in that age.