58G THE MIDDLE AGES. A.D. 1049-1204.
addition to the cathedrals already mentioned, Lincoln, Can. terbury, York, Salisbury, and other great churches were begun in this period. Addition after addition was made till the noble churches of England got their final shape. The tower is one of the prominent features of the English cathe dral, Lichfield being probably the most important with spires. The finest outside impression is made by Salisbury and Lincoln minsters. Many of these cathedrals were built by Benedictine monks, such as Canterbury, Durham, Ely, and Norwich, and by the canons regular of St. Augus tine, as Carlisle and Bristol. Lincoln, Chichester, Salisbury, York, St. David's, and others were served by secular priests.
The architects of Scotland seem to have come from Eng land and to have built after English models. The noblest of her mediaeval churches are Glasgow, St. Andrews, Dumblane, and Elgin, and among her convents, Kelso, Dryburgh, Holyrood, and Melrose.
In Spain, great minsters at Toledo, Burgos, and other cities were built in Gothic style in the thirteenth century, and Seville, which offers the largest floor surface of all the Christian churches, and is also of the same type, was begun in 1401 and completed 1520.
In Italy, Gothic was never fully at home. The cathe drals of Milan, Florence, and Siena are regarded as its finer specimens. Siena was begun in 1243. The minster of Milan was not begun till 1385. It is the largest Christian church after Seville and St. Peter's. Its west fagade is out of accord with the rest of the structure, which is pure Gothic. It is built of white marble and soars up to the clouds in hundreds of spires. Within full sight of the Milan cathedral are the Alps, crowned with snow and ele vated far above the din of human traffic and voices ; and in comparison with those mightier cathedrals of God, the creations of man seem small even as man himself seems small in comparison with his Maker.
CHAPTER XII.
SCHOLASTIC AND MYSTIC THEOLOGY. § 95. Literature and General Introduction.
LITERATURE: I. — The works of ANSELM, ABJGLARD, PETER THE LOMBARD, HUGO OF ST. VICTOR, ALBERTUS MAGNUS, THOMAS AQUINAS, BONAVEN- TURA, DUNS SCOTUS, and other Schoolmen.
II. — R. D. HAMPDEN (bishop of Hereford, d. 1868): The Scholastic Philos. considered in its Relation to Christ. TheoL, Bampton Lectures, Oxf., 1832, 3d ed. 1848. — B. HAUKEAU : De la philos. scholast., 2 vols. Paris, 1850. — W. KAULICH : Gesch. d. scholast. Philos., Prag, 1863.— C. PRANTL : Gesch. d. Logik im Abendlande, 4 vols. Leip., 1861-1870. — F. D. MAURICE (d. 1872): Med. Philos., London, 1870. — *A. STOCKL (Rom. Cath.) : Gesch. d. Philos. d. MUtelalters, Mainz, 3 vols. 1864- 1866. Vol. I. covers the beginnings of Scholasticism from Isidore of Seville to Peter the Lombard ; Vol. II., the period of its supremacy ; Vol. III., the period of its decline down to Jesuitism and Jansenism. — H. REUTER (Prof, of Ch. Hist, at Gottingen, d. 1889): Gesch. d. rel. Aufklarung im Mittelalter, 2 vols. Berlin, 1875-1877. Important for the sceptical and rationalistic tendencies of the M. A. — TH. HARPER: The Metaphysics of the School, London, 1880. — K. WERNER (Rom. Cath.): D. Scholastik des spdteren MUtelalters, 4 vols. Wien, 1881- 1887. Begins with DUNS SCOTUS. — The relevant chapters in the His tories of Doctrine, by HARNACK, LOOKS, FISHER, SEEBERG, SHELDON, and the Rom. Cath. divines, and J. BACH : Dogmengesch. d. Mittelalters, 2 vols. 1873-1875, and * J. SCHWANE : Dogmengesch. d. mittleren Zeit, 1882. — The Histories of Philos. by RITTER, ERDMANN, UEBERWEG- HEINZE, and Scholasticism, by PROF. SETH, in Enc. Brit. XXI. 417-431.
SCHOLASTICISM is the term given to the theology of the Middle Ages. It forms a distinct body of speculation, as do the works of the Fathers and the writings of the Reformers. The Fathers worked in the quarries of Scripture and, in con flict with heresy, wrought out, one by one, its teachings into dogmatic statements. The Schoolmen collected, analyzed and systematized these dogmas and argued their reasonable ness against all conceivable objections. The Reformers, throwing off the yoke of human authority, and disparaging