580 THE MIDDLE AGES. A.D. 1049-1294.
1438; Magdalen, 1448, where Wolsey was fellow. Among the illustrious men who taught at Oxford, in the earlier periods, were Edmund Rich, Roger Bacon, Grosseteste, Adam Marsh, Duns Scotus, Ockam, Bradwardine, Richard of Armagh, Wyclif.
As a centre of theological training, Oxford has been closely identified with some of the most important movements in the religious history of England. There Wyclif preached his doctrine and practical reforms. There the Humanists, Grocyn, Colet, and Linacre taught. The school was an im portant religious centre in the time of the Reformation, in the Commonwealth period, and the period of the Restora tion. Within its precincts the Wesleys and Whitefield studied and the Methodist movement had its birth, and there, in the first half of the last century, Pusey, Keble, and New man exerted the spell of their influence, and the Tractarian movement was started and fostered. Since the year 1854 Oxford and Cambridge have been open to Dissenters. All religious tests were abolished 1871. In 1885 the spiritual descendants of the Puritans, the Independents, established Mansfield College, in Oxford, for the training of ministers.
NOTE. — LIST OF MEDIAEVAL UNIVERSITIES. l
Before 1100, Salerno.
1100-1200.— Bologna, 1150?; Paris, 1160?; Oxford, 1170?; Reggio and Modena.
1200-1300. — Vicenza, 1204; Cambridge, 1209 ; Palencia, Spain, 1212, by Alfonzo VIII. of Castile, abandoned; Arezzo, 1215; Padua, 1222; Naples, 1224 ; Vercelli, 1228 ; Toulouse, 1229, by Gregory IX. ; Salamanca, 1230, by Ferdinand III. of Castile and confirmed by Alexander IV., 1254; Curia Romana, 1244, by Pope Innocent IV.; Piacenza, Italy, 1248; Seville, 1254, by Alfonso X. of Castile; Montpellier, 1289, by Nicolas IV.; Alcala, 1293, by Sancho of Aragon, transferred 1837 to Madrid ; Pamiers, France, 1295, by Boniface VIII.
1300-1400. — Lerida, 1300, by James II. of Aragon and Sicily ; Rome, 1303, by Boniface VIII. ; Angers, 1305; Orleans, 1306, by Philip the Fair and Clement V. ; Perugia, 1308, by Clement V. ; Lisbon, 1309, by King Diniz, transferred to Coimbra ; Dublin, 1312, chartered by Clement V.
1 Comp. the tables of Denifle, 807-810, Compayrd, 50-52, and Rashdall in Table of Contents, vol. II.
§ 94. THE CATHEDRALS. 581
but not organized; Treviso, 1318; Cahors, 1332, by John XXII. ; Gre noble, 1339, by Benedict XII. ; Verona, 1339, by Benedict XII.; Pisa, 1343, by Clement VI. ; Valladolid, 1346, by Clement VI. ; Prague, 1347, by Clement VI. and Charles IV. ; Perpignan, 1349, by Peter IV. of Aragon, confirmed by Clement VII., 1379 ; Florence, 1349, by Charles IV. ; Siena, 1357, by Charles IV.; Huesca, 1359; Pavia, 1361, by Charles IV. and by Boniface VIII., 1389 ; Vienna, 1365, by Rudolf IV. and Urban V. ; Orange, 1365 ; Cracow, 1364, by Casimir III. of Poland and Urban V. ; Fiinfkirchen, Hungary, 1365, by Urban V. ; Orvieto, 1377 ; Erfurt, 1379, by Clement VII.; Cologne, 1385, Urban VI.; Heidelberg, 1386, by the Elector Ruprecht of the Palatinate and Urban VI. ; Lucca, 1387 ; Ferrara, 1391 ; Fermo, 1398.
1400-1500. — Wiirzburg, 1402 ; Turin, 1405 ; Aix, in Provence, 1409 ; Leipzig, 1409 ; St. Andrews, 1411 ; Rostock, 1419 ; Dole, 1423 ; Louvain, Belgium, 1425; Poictiers, 1431; Caen, 1437; Catana, Sicily, 1444; Bar celona, 1450 ; Valence, France, 1452 ; Glasgow, 1453 ; Greifswald, 1455 ; Freiburg im Breisgau, 1455 ; Basel, 1459 ; Nantes, 1460 ; Pressburg, 1465 ; Ingolstadt, 1472; Saragossa, 1474; Copenhagen, 1475; Mainz, 1476; Upsala, 1477; Tubingen, 1477; Parma, 1482; Besa^on, 1485; Aber deen, 1494 ; Wittenberg, 1502, by Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony.
§ 94. The Cathedrals.
LITERATURE: J. FERGUSSON: Hist, of Architecture in All Countries, 2 vols. 1865-1867, and since. — SIR G. G. SCOTT : The Rise and Devel. of Med. Arch., London, 1879. — VIOLLET-LE Due : Lectures on Arch., Engl. trans., 2 vols. London, 1877. — T. R. SMITH: Arch. Gothic and Renaissance, N.Y., 1880. — B. FERREE : Christ. Thought in Arch., in Papers of Am. Soc. of Ch. Hist., 1892, pp. 113-140. — F. X. KRAUS : Gesch. der christl. Kunst, 2 vols. Freib., 1896-1900. —F. BOND: Engl. Cathedrals, London, 1899. — R. STURGIS: Diet, of Arch, and Building, 3 vols. N.Y., 1901 sq. — Art. Kirchenbau by HAUCK, in Herzog, X. 774-793.— P. LACROIX: The Arts of the Middle Ages, Engl. trans., London. — RUSKIN: Stones of Venice, Seven Lamps of Arch., and other writings. This enthusiastic admirer of architecture, especially the Gothic, judged art from the higher standpoint of morality and religion.
The cathedrals of the Middle Ages were the expression of religious praise and devotion and entirely the product of the Church. No other element entered into their construction. They were hymns in stone, and next to the universities are the most imposing and beneficent contribution the mediaeval period made to later generations. The soldiery of the Cru sades failed in its attempt at conquest. The builders at home wrought out structures which have fed the piety and