THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
lished by the Society of Biblical Archeology, and the greater portion of many separate works upon the same theme are devoted to Egyptian research, which has yielded very little for the understanding of Biblical history, and virtually nothing for the illustration of the religious and social life of the Hebrews. The reason therefor lies partly in the unique and unsympathetic character of Egyptian culture, partly in the fact that Egypt had very seldom any controlling influence on Palestine during the formative period of Israel, and partly in the circumstance that the Egyptian records are not so businesslike and accurate as, for example, those of Assyria and Babylonia, which form an indispensable supplement to Biblical history. (3) The distinction between ancient and modern conditions. It is a common error to suppose that the study of Bible lands and the manners and customs of their present habitants furnish Biblical archeology accurately reproduced. As a matter of fact such a study is informing only along the line of external resemblance. The outward life of the Semitic peoples has remained in many respects like its ancient past because of a similarity of occupation and the slow march of civilization. Occasional Bible texts here and there are illumined by a reference to modern customs. But there is a world-wide difference in the Nearer East, as elsewhere, between the life and spirit of the past and the present. The Bible itself, regarded in the light of its own political, social, and religious atmosphere, is the great handbook of Biblical archeology, whose primary elements, moreover, are not so much facts as conditions and principles, such as the inseparable relation between God and his people, between the people and the land, and between God and the land; the immediate and direct action of the Deity in all events and in all phenomena; the unity and actual identity of what are called the sacred and the secular, of religion and life, or of religion and morals; the solidarity of the community as the basis of the State and the ground of the responsibility of the individual; and a world-consciousness without abstract ideas and to which even God himself was the most concrete of realities. J. F. M. Biblioqbaphy: Of works on Biblical archeology or useful as sources, the more important of ancient time are: Eusebius, " On the Names of Places in the Holy Scripture." commonly called the Onomasticon, translated into Latin by Jerome, with title, De situ et nominibus locorum Hebraicorum, both in P. de Lagarde, Onomaslica sacra, Gottingen, 1870, 1887; Epiphanius, " On Weights and Measures," ed. Lagarde, Symmicta, ii. 149-216, Gottingen, 1880. More modern works: C. Sigonius, De republica Hebraica, Bologna, 1582; B. Arias Montanus, Antiquilates Judaicai, Leyden, 1593; T. Godwin, Moses et Aaron, Oxford, 1616; ed. J. H. Hottinger, Frankfort, 1710; P. Cunaeus, De republica Hebraica, Lyons, 1617; J. Spencer, De legibus Hebrmorum ritualibus, Cambridge, 1685; rev. ed. by L. Chappelow, 1727, by C. M. Pfaff, Tubingen, 1732; J. Lund, Die alten judischen Heiligthumer, Gottesdienste, und Oewohnheiten, Hamburg, 1695; M. Leydekker, De republica Htbrmorum, Amsterdam, 1704; A. Reland, Palmstina ex monumentit veteribus illustrata, Utrecht, 1714; A. G. Wahner, Antiquitates Ebrceorum, Gottingen, 1743; J. D. Michaelis, Mosaisches Recht, Frankfort, 1771-75, Biehl. 1777. Eng transl., London, 1814; H. E. Warnekros, Entwurj der hebraischen Alterthilmer, Weimar, 1782, 1794, 1832. Most of the works which had appeared at the time wore collected by B. Ugolino in his Thesaurus antiquitatum sacrarum, 34 vols., Venice, 1744-69. From this time on there are numerous works, such as those of
G. L. Baur, Goltesdienstliche Verfaasung, Leipsic, 1805; J. Jahn, Vienna, 1817-25, Eng. transl., Andover, 1827; W. M. L. de Wette, 4th ed. by F. J. Rabiger, Leipsic, 1864; J. H. Pareau, Utrecht, 1817; J. M. A. Scholz, Bonn, 1834; E. W. Hengstenberg, Biicher Mose's und Mgypten, Berlin, 1841 , Eng. transl. by R. D. C. Robbins, Andover, 1843; C. von Lengerke, Kenaan, Konigsberg, 1844; H. Ewald, Appendix to vol. ii. of Geschichte des Volkes Israel, Gottingen, 1848, 1866, Eng. transl. by H. S. Solly, London, 1876; J. L. Saalschiitz, Mosaisches Recht, Berlin, 1853; idem, Archaologie, Konigsberg, 1855-56; K. F. Keil, Frankfort, 1858-59, 1875, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 18S7- 88; D. B. von llaneberg, Munich, 1869; H. J. Van Lennep, Bible Lands; their modern Customs and Manners illustrative of Scripture, New York, 1875. The latest works arc E. C. Bissell, Biblical Antiquities, Philadelphia, 1888 (conservative); E. Babelon, Manual of Oriental Antiquities . Chaldaa, Assyria, Persia, Syria, Judoza, Phoenicia, and Carthage, London, 1889, new ed., 1906 (valuable for purposes of comparison) ; J. T. de Visser, Hebreeuwsche Archaologie, 2 vols., Utrecht, 1891-98; J. Benzinger, Hebraische Archaologie, Freiburg, 1894 (an excellent handbook); W Nowack, Hebraische Archaologie, Freiburg, 1894 (goes well with Benzinger); C. Clermont-Ganneau, Recueil des monuments inedits ou peu connus, art, archeologie, epigraphte, 3 vols., Paris, 1897-1900; Recent Research in Bible Lands, ed. H. V Hilprecht, Philadelphia, 1898; T. Nicol, Recent Archaeology and the Bible, London, 1899; a useful book is H. V. Hilprecht, Explorations in Bible Lands, Philadelphia, 1903; the various histories of Israel by Wellhausen, Stade, Kittel, and others are also important. For Arabian Antiquities see under Arabia, and for Egypt and Asia Minor see those articles. For the medieval itineraries and modern works of travel, consult R. Rohricht, Bibliotheca geographica Palcestinw, Berlin, 1890; a useful bibliography will be found in J. F. Hurst, Literature of Theology, 118-130, New York, 1896.
ARCHEOLOGY, CHRISTIAN : The science which investigates and exhibits the ecclesiastical and religious forms of life and conditions of the Christian community for the period terminating with the Middle Ages. It may be divided into:
(1) Law and government, including such topics as constitution, the clergy, monasticism, discipline, church law, synods, relations to the State, etc.;
(2) worship — the various forms of divine service, festivals, such acts as baptism, confirmation, the marriage ceremony, burial, consecrations (of churches, altars, bells, holy water, etc.), benedictions and maledictions, exorcism, etc.; (3) art — architecture, painting, sculpture, church furniture, burial arrangements, etc.; (4) private and public life — the giving of names, marriage, position of women, prayer, education, slavery, occupations, corporations and societies, amusements, pilgrimages, superstitions, benevolent institutions, etc. Church music and books are better treated, it would seem, under the head of worship than of art. The sources of Christian archeology are the same as for church history. One of the most important and the last to receive the attention it deserves is furnished by monumental remains.
The history of the science begins with the first work of Protestantism on church history, the " Magdeburg Centuries" (1559-74; see Magdeburg Centuries), which, however, makes no distinction between archeology and history; the same is true of the work of the Roman Catholic scholar, Caesar Baronius (cf. the epitome of Baronius's Annates by C. Schulting, Cologne, 1601). As an independent science Christian archeology may be said to have originated with Joseph Bingham's massive work, Origines ecclesiasticce, or the Antiquities of the Christian Church (10 vols., London, 1708-22; see