THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
views, which was the easier as Christian had shown an inclination toward the Reformation, and had also (1520) aroused the horror of Europe by beheading a large number of Swedish nobles in order to strengthen his position. Arcimboldi was not, however, fully restored to favor for some years. In return for the influence of his family, exerted to win Milan for Charles V., he was made bishop of No vara in 1525, and archbishop of Milan in 1550. (Herman Lundstrom.)
Bibliography: B. Zimmermann, De J. A. Arcimboldo, Upsala, 1761; J. M. Schrock, Christliche Kirchengeschichte seit der Reformation, ii. 11, Leipsic, 1S05; F. L. G. Raumer, Geschichte Europas seit dem Ende des funfzehnten Jahrhunderts, ii. 103, Leipsic, 1833; J. Weidling, Schwedische Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation, Gotha, 1882; K. Hamann, Ein Ablassbrief Arcimboldi aus dem Jahre 1616, Hamburg, 1884; and literature on the Reformation in Sweden.
AREOPAGUS (Gk. Areios Pagos, "Mars's Hill"). See Greece, I.
ARETAS, ftr'e-tas (later Gk. form Arethas, on coins and inscriptions Charethath): The name of four princes of the Xabataean kingdom in the s. and e. of Palestine, whose capital was Petra. In the Bible (according to correct readings) only two of them are named — in II Mace. v. 8, the earliest of the name whom we know, or Aretas I., with whom in 169 b.c. the high priest Jason sought refuge from Antiochus Epiphanes; and the one who is probably to be designated Aretas IV., mentioned in II Cor. xi. 32. According to Josephus {Ant., xviii. 5) his daughter was the first wife of Herod Antipas, who was put away to make room for Herodias (Matt. xiv. 3 and parallels). This divorce caused enmity between him and Herod, and disputes over boundaries brought on a war, in which Aretas was victorious (c. 36 a.d.). At the command of Tiberius, the proconsul of Syria, Vitellius, took the field against him; but while the expedition was on its way toward Petra, it was recalled by the news of Tiberius's death (Mar. 16, 37). It is difficult to determine how a "governor" (Gk. ethnarches) under Aretas came to have power at Damascus about the same time, as mentioned in II Cor. xi. It is unlikely that, as Marquardt and Mommsen conjecture, the city had belonged to the Nabatean territory since the days of Aretas III. More probable is the widely held view that Aretas IV. took forcible possession of it temporarily before, during, or after the expedition of Vitellius, at least during the winter of 36-37 Another theory is that Caligula, who (unlike his predecessors) was unfriendly to Herod, conceded to Herod's opponent the sovereignty of the city which had once belonged to the Xabataean princes. Zahn has sought to solve the problem in a surprising way by trying to show that this " governor " or ethnarch of King Aretas was a Bedouin chief subject to him (cf. Schtirer, in TSK, lxxii., 1899, pp. 95 sqq.), who had no authority in Damascus, but watched the gates of the city, from the outside. Another difficulty is offered by the fact that Luke (Acts ix. 23-25) attributes the peril of Paul at Damascus not to the ethnarch under Aretas, but to the Jews. It is possible, however, that the Jews caused the ethnarch's action and also watched the gates them-
selves, but the simplest explanation is that Luke mentions them merely as the original instigators. In any case the notices give no certain date for Pauline chronology; but the event can be approximately fixed in the winter of 36-37. if the hypothesis of forcible occupation be correct, or after March, 37, if that of investiture by Caligula is preferred. But Zahn has made clear that an earlier date is not impossible. (P, Ewald.)
Bibliography: Schurer, Geschichte, i. 726-744, Eng. transl., I. i. 345-362 (contains history of the Nabatsean kings and a very full bibliography); K. Wieseler, Chronologic des apostolischen Zeitalter, 142-143, 167-175, Gbttingen, 1848; Gutschmid, in J. Euting, Nabataische Inschriften, Berlin, 1885; Conybeare and Howson, Paul, i„ chap, iii., appendix, London, 1888; C. Clemen, Chronologie der paulinischen Briefe, § 22, Halle, 1893; T. Zahn, in NKZ, 1904, 39 sqq.
ARETHAS: Archbishop of Caesarea; b. at Patrae about 860. In the light of recent investigations and discoveries he appears as a vigorous ecclesiastical ruler in the Byzantine empire, and as a powerful promoter of learning, who took up and carried on the traditions of the school of Photius. The period of his life was one of great interest in scholarship and in the collection of the surviving treasures of antiquity. He became archbishop of Caesarea under the Emperor Leo VI. (d. 912), and as such was next in rank to the patriarch of Constantinople. He must have lived to a good old age, as we have a manuscript letter of his to the emperor Romanus (d. 944). In his episcopal capacity, he was a defender of orthodoxy as it was understood by Photius. He despised both the Nestorians and the " insane " Eutychians, whom he classed with the Manicheans; he rejected Tatian's doctrine of the Logos as equally heretical with the Arian. The tendency to the veneration of relics and of the Virgin Mary appears here and there in his works. Both these and his actions display a passionate temperament, with an unswerving steadfastness when he has once taken a side. Leo VI. came into conflict with the canon law by his decision to marry for the fourth time, probably induced by the desire for a male heir. The story of this conflict (904-907) unfolds a remarkable picture of Byzantine politics, as conditioned by the mutual relations of Church and State. While the Saracens were threatening the frontier of the empire, Leo labored diligently to gain the consent of the patriarch Nicholas to his fourth marriage; but Nicholas was reluctant to give it, and appealed to the disapproval of Arethas in support of his action in refusing to admit the emperor to the Church. When the patriarch showed a more conciliatory temper, Arethas refused to follow him, and was banished after the downfall of Nicholas. He won the latter's successor, Euthymius, to his way of thinking, and adhered to his support when Nicholas was restored after the death of Leo. Euthymius, after an outward reconciliation with his competitor, retired to a life of asceticism, dying in 917. The hatred of his enemies pursued him even to the grave; but three years later Arethas was able to show his constancy by accomplishing the reverential translation of his remains. These data for the biography of Arethas are illustrated by a number of letters and occasional writings collected in the unpublished