THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
trage zur hebraischen Palaographie und zur Geschichte der Punktuation, in TSK, 1874; S. R. Driver, Notes ,m the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel, pp. xi-xxxv, London, 1S90; Yollers, in ZATW, 1SS3, pp. 229 sqq.; L. Blau, Zur Einleitung in die heiligc Schri/t, pp. 4S-80, Stmsburg, 1S94; R. Butin, The Ten \a,u//oth of tiie Torah; or the Meaning and Purpose of the Extraordinary Points of the Pentateuch, Baltimore, 1906 (an important and scientific discussion of textual critical value). On the Masoretic material in the Talmud and Midrash consult: H. L. Strack, Prolegomena critica in Vetus Testamentum, ut sup.; L. Blau, Masoretische Untersuchungen, Strasburg, 1891; idem, Zur Einleitung in die heilige Schrift, 100 sqq., ut sup. On the vowels and accents (especially on the superlinear system) cf. Strack 's edition of the Babylonian codex of the prophets, p. vii, ut sup.; idem, Zeitschrift fur die gesammte lutherische Theologie und Kirche, 1877, pp. 17-52; idem, in Wissenschaftliche Jahresberichte ilber die morgenliindischen Studien, 1879, p. 124; J. Derenbourg, in Revue critii/ue, 1879, pp. 453 sqq.; W. Wickes, A Treatise on the Accentuation of the Three Poetical Books, 1881; A Treatise on the Accentuation of the twenty-one so-called Prose-Books, pp. 142 sqq., London, 1SS7; G. F. Moore, in Proceedings of the American Oriental Society, 1888; D. S. Margoliouth, The Superlinear Punctuation, in PSBA, 1893, pp. 164-205; A. Biichler, Untersuchungen zur Entstehung und Entwickelung der hebraischen Accente, Vienna, 1892. On the division into sections, chapters, etc., cf. REJ, iii, 282 sqq., vi, 122 sqq., 250 sqq., vii, 146 sqq.; Theodor, in Monatsschrift fur Geschichte und \\~ issenschaft des Judenthums, 1S85, 1886, 1887; O. Schmid, Ueber verschiedene Einteilungen der heiligen Schrift, Graz, 1891. The catalogues of Hebrew MSS. are mentioned in H. L. Strack, Prolegomena, pp. 29-33, 119-121, ut sup.; idem, in Ein- Uihmg in das A. T., p. 182, Munich, 1898; and with special fulness in Ginsburg, Introduction, ut sup.
II. The New Testament. — 1. History of the Written Text: The autographs of the New Testament very early disappeared, owing to the constant use of the perishable papyrus; for this appears to have been the material (II John 12). If they were really not in the handwriting of the apostles, but in that of their amanuenses, as Paul's Epistles generally were (Rom. xvi, 22; II Thess. iii, 17), it is easier to account for the phenomenon. The papyrus rolls preserved to the present day were never much used; indeed, the most of them have been found in sarcophagi, and so, of course, were never used at all. The ink was lampblack mixed with gum dissolved in water, copperas 1. The Au- ■ (sulphate of iron) being sometimes
£??: added- The Pen was of reed (cala-
the New \ rn. ■,■ , ■ , .
Testament mus>- lne writing was entirely in Books. uncials (capitals), with no separation of the words (except rarely to indicate the beginning of a new paragraph), no breathings, accents, or distinction of initial letters, and few, if any, marks of punctuation. The evangelists may have denominated their compositions " Gospels," although Justin regularly speaks of the " Memoirs of the Apostles "; but all addition to the name is later, and presupposes a collection of the Gospels. In the case of the Epistles the brief address, e.g., " To the Romans," was probably added by the original sender, and other marks of genuineness given (cf. II Thess. iii, 17). The Muratorian Canon (second half of the second century; see Muratorian Canon) calls Acts and the Apocalypse by these names, and so proves the early use of these designations. The designation " Catholic (i.e., General) Epistle " is first met with at the close of the second century (Apollonius, in Eusebius, Hist, ercl., V, xviii, 5, where the First Epistle of John is probably
meant). The application and limiting of the term to the whole of the present collection is of later date; for even in the third and fourth century it was customary to give this term to epistles, like that of Barnabas or those of Dionysius of Corinth, which were not specially addressed.
The external history of the New Testament text for a thousand years prior to the invention of printing can be traced by means of manuscripts. Before the formal close of the canon (end of fourth century) there were probably few single manuscripts of the entire New Testament. " Of the three thousand known manu-
scripts. scripts of the New Testament, only about thirty include all the books. Some of those of the fourth and fifth century now preserved contain not only the Greek Old Testament (N, A, B, C), but also writings which, though not canonical, were read in churches and studied by catechumens. Thus, attached to the Codex Sinaiticus (X) were the Epistle of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas; to the Codex Alexandrinus (A), two " epistles " ascribed to Clement of Rome (q.v.) and the so-called Psalterium Salcmonis. The four Gospels were most frequently copied, the Pauline Epistles oftener than the Catholic Epistles or the Acts, least often the Apocalypse. The Gospels were usually arranged in the present order, then came the Pauline Epistles, the Acts, and the Catholic Epistles; the Apocalypse always last. The arrangement of the Epistles differed; indeed, there was no model. (On the various arrangements cf. C. A. Credner, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, ed. G. Volkmar, Berlin, 1860; C. R. Gregory, Prolegomena, Leipsic, 1884, pp. 131 sqq.; T. Zahn, Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons, Erlangen, 1883, ii, 343 sqq.)
After papyrus had gone out of use, parchment or vellum came in and was used from the fourth to the eleventh century; then came in cotton paper, and afterward linen paper (cf . W Wattenbach, Das Schriftwesen im Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1896, pp. 139 sqq.). The growing scarcity of parchment led to the reuse of the old skins, the former writing being erased or washed off; and unfortunately it oftener happened that it was a Biblical manuscript which was thus turned into a patristic one than the reverse. Such manuscripts are termed Codices palimpscsti (palimpsests) or rescripti. 3. Their By the use of chemicals the origi- Material nal text has often been recovered in and Form, modern times. The most famous New Testament palimpsest is the Codex Ephraemi (C), of the fifth century, rewritten upon in the twelfth. As papyrus disappeared from use, the book form was generally substituted for the rolls, in manuscripts written on parchment or paper. The books were mostly made up of quaternions, i.e., quires of four sheets, doubled so as to make sixteen pages, less frequently of five, though later quires of six sheets were common. The division of the page into columns was at first retained, two being the usual number (e.g., Cod. Alex.); but in many manuscripts (e.g., Cod. Ephraemi) the lines ran across the page. [Exceptionally, N has four columns, B three.] From the