(S. BERGERt.)
Bibliography: M. Giidemann, Haggadah und Midrasch- Haggadah, Berlin, 1884; D. H. Miiller and J. v. Schlosser, Die Haggadah von Sarajevo, Vienna, 1898; T. Merzdorf, Bibliothekarische Unterhaltungen,Oldenberg, 1850; E. Reuss, Die deutsche Historienbibel, Jena, 1855; idem, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften des N. T., §§ 463-464, Brunswick, 1887; Lea Quatre Livres des rois, ed. Le R. de Lincy, Paris, 1841; E. Reuss, in Revue de theologie et philosophic, xvi (1857), 1 sqq. ; H. Palm, Eine mittelhochdeutsche Historienbibel, Breslau, 1867; J. Bonnard, Lea Traductions de la Bible en vers francais, Paris, 1884; Le Roman de 8. Fanuel, ed. C. Chabaneau, ib. 1889; L. Delisle, Livres d'images destines a Vinstruction religieuse des IcCiques, Paris, 1890; S. Berger, Les Bibles Castillanes, in Romania, xxviii, 1899.
BIBLES, ILLUSTRATED.
Illustrated Manuscripts, Roman and Byzantine (§ 1).
Teutonic and Celtic Manuscripts (§ 2).
Manuscripts of the Eleventh Century (§ 3).
Biblia Pauperum (§4).
Illustrated Bibles of the Reformation and Later (§ 5).
The Nineteenth Century (§ 6).
The history of illustration goes back beyond the Christian era; the ancients adorned manuscripts of Homer, Vergil, and Livy with drawings and richly painted designs, and illustrations were introduced for educational purposes into the works of Vitruvius on architecture, Aratus on astrology, and Vegetius on the art of war. In like manner, from the time of Constantine and probably earlier, illustration was applied to manuscripts i. Illustra- of the Bible. Presumably to this ted Manu- decoration may be referred what scripts, Jerome and Chrysostom say in repro- Roman and bation of the luxury which people Byzantine, allowed themselves in the ornamentation of the Scriptures. The high veneration paid to the Bible explains the zeal with which miniature-painting was pursued in the early
RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bibles, Historical Bibles, Illustrated
Church. The extant illustrated manuscripts do not apparently go further back than the fourth century (the fragment of Genesis in the Vienna library; the Vatican Joshua; the evangeliarium of Rossano; and a Syriac evangeliarium of 586 in the Lauren tian library at Florence). In these many features, such as the architecture, costume, action, the introduction of allegorical figures and personifications, indicate the nature of the scene or its locality, which are derived from ancient art and reveal the prevalence of a good tradition. Among them are small pictures executed in body-colors with idyllic artistic feeling, after the manner of the older mural painting. The miniatures of the Vienna Genesis are still partly in the purely illusionist style which had been dominant since the Flavian period, like the paintings in the Baths of Constantine; but the greater part of them are in a style specially adapted to book illustration, more a draftsman's than a painter's. They exhibit the continued influence of the narrative art of the Roman empire in the second and third centuries, as shown in the pictures from the Odyssey on the Esquiline, on Roman sarcophagi, and in the pictures of Philostratus; this defined the specific style of all Christian compositions until the sixteenth century. The illustrations of the Paris Psalter and other "manuscripts which may be assigned to the end of the fourth century are characteristic of the end of Greek and the beginning of Roman painting. The Joshua continues the Roman triumphal style, with strong affinity to the reliefs of Trajan's Column. In the Byzantine empire the influence of the ancient civilization was long felt; but a more ornamental tendency came in with the iconoclastic controversy. It is true there are some illustrations of the ninth and tenth centuries, a psalter and a commentary on Isaiah in the Vatican, another psalter and the sermons of Gregory Nazianzen in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, which are worthy to stand by the side of the early Christian specimens; but as a rule the drawing grows harder and stiffer. Ornamental m, on the other hand, is richer; the gold ground becomes more usual, the initial letters are made prominent, and the ornamental borders are more noteworthy. Mosaic and enamel painting set the style for the miniatures as well. The standard of Byzantine painting is laid down in the Mount Athos " Guide to Painting " (1458; translated into German by G. Schafer, Treves, 1855). The development of illustration in the West was altogether different. Here, too, the influence of the early Christian tradition was operative; but the entrance of the Teutonic nations into the Church brought new impulses and new problems. They were, indeed, barbarians, without any native artistic style; but they brought with them a joyous power of accomplishment, a feeling for nature, and a bold love of truth which had far-reaching effects. S
Tne Roman tradition continued among the Lombards and the Franks; but art became ruder and less refined. In the early Christian and Byzantine manuscripts the decoration had been usually confined to the addition of pictures; the Teutonic peoples extended it to the text itself. The initials
are almost buried in bright colors and elaborate decoration, the leaves framed in colored designs. The scribe was often the painter. 2. Teutonic These characteristics appear plainly and Celtic in the Irish manuscripts — the " Book Manuscripts, of Kells " at Trinity College, Dublin, and those of Wurzburg, Treves, and St. Gall. The influence of Gregory the Great helped to preserve the early Christian traditions among the Anglo-Saxons and Franks until within the Carolingian period (the Purple Gospel in the British Museum and an evangeliarium at Cambridge, seventh century). An independent conception comes out first in the illustrations proper, without any feeling for perspective, but with an attractive effort to attain truth and naturalness (Ashburnham Pentateuch, seventh century). Under the Carolingians great schools were founded for artistic copying of manuscripts at Tours, Orleans, Metz, Reichenau, St. Gall, Treves, etc. Their work was connected with the old tradition by its sober-minded simplicity and its careful technique (evangeliarium of Godescalc, Paris; another at Vienna; another of St. Medard, 8'26, at Soissons; another of King Lothair, 843, and the Bible of Charles the Bald, 850, both in Paris). In the provinces the development, though less beautiful, was more independent (Bible of Alcuin, British Museum). Here the draftsman takes precedence of the painter, but the work is marked by originality and poetic imagination and power (Utrecht Psalter, ninth century; a benedictionale at Chatsworth; evangeliariaof Otto I at Aix-la-Chapelle, of Egbert at Treves, c. 980, of Ecbternach at Gotha, c. 990, and of Otto III at Aix-la-Chapelle). Then the decoration becomes gradually more elaborate, the pictorial and ornamental parts begin to interchange their qualities, the initials and borders are rich and gay.
In the eleventh century the Cluniac mood of struggle and renunciation prevails; the spiritual excitement and vivid fancy of the time are shown in the Bible-illustrations; wasted forms in stiff garments set forth the ascetic ideal of their creators ; truth to nature disappears entirely. And yet there is great progress in every domain of the intellectual life — it is the age of Bernard. Even in the miniatures there are signs of the awakening 3. Manu- of the individual life; beneath all the scripts of passion and combat there are a quiet the melancholy and longing for peace. Eleventh Henry II endowed his Bamberg Century, foundations writh beautifully painted books, and at Hildesheim an important scriptorium, influential throughout the north of Europe, was founded by Bern ward, himself a pioneer in painting. Here the forms are hard and traditional, but the content is new and full of deep and animated feeling. After the rise of general: civilization under the Hohenstaufens, the bars of form were to a great extent broken down. The joy of living came back, and led the imagination once more into the comprehension of beautiful things, both graceful and dignified. There is a better feeling for outline, and the study of the heritage of antiquity seems to revive. The Bruchsai evangeliarium at Carlsruhe shows surprising'}
Bibles, Illustrated Bibles, Polyglot