RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Bibles, Illustrated Bibles, Polyglot
1902), who, during a ten years' residence in Palestine, prepared a series of sketches based upon study of the Biblical places and environment. The Life of our Lord Jesus Christ, with 365 compositions in color and black and white, was published in 4 vols, in 1899-1900, and The Old Testament with 396 similar illustrations, in 1904 (2 vols.).] (H- Holscher.)
Bibliography: A. de Bastard, Peintures et ornements des MSS., especially vol. iii, 8 vols., Paris, 1832-69 (4th-16th centuries, a very complete work); idem, Peintures, ornements , . de la Bible de Charles le Chauve . , a Paris, ib. 1883; H. Shaw, Illuminated Ornaments of the Middle Ages, London, 1833 (6th-17th centuries, elaborate and costly); idem, Handbook of the Art of Illumination, ib. 1869; J. O. Westwood, Illuminated Illustrations of the Bible, copied from Select MSS. of the Middle Ages, ib. 1846 (with descriptive letterpress); H. N. Humphreys, Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages, ib. 1849 (historical and illustrative); H. A. Miiller, Das Evangelistarium Heinrichs III. in der Stadtbibliothek zu Bremen, Bremen, 1862; W. R. Tymms, Art of Illuminating, London, 1866 (noteworthy); J. O. Westwood, Facsimiles of the Miniatures and Ornaments of Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS., ib. 1868; J. H. Todd, Descriptive Remarks on Illuminations, ib. 1869 (deals largely with the Book of Kells); J. E. Wocel, Die Bilderbibel des Belislav, Prague, 1871; A. Frind, Scriptum super Apocalypsin cum imaginibus, ib. 1872; F. W. Delamotte, Primer of the Art of Illumination, London, 1874; W. de G. Birch and H. Jenner, Early Drawings and Illuminations; Introduction to the Study of Illuminated MSS., ib. 1879 ("a handsome book for specialists"); A. Springer, Psalterillustrationen im fruhen Mittelalter, Leipsic, 1881; idem, Die Genesisbilder in der Kunst des fruhen Mittelalters, ib. 1884; O.von Gebhardt, The Miniatures of the Ashburnham Pentateuch, London, 1883; R. Muther, Die altesten deutschen Bilderbibeln, Munich, 1883; F. X. Kraus, Die Miniaturen des Codex Egberti . . . zu Trier, Freiburg, 1884; idem, Geschichte der christlichen Kunst, i, 447 sqq., ib. 1896; Geschichte der deutschen Kunst, vol. iii, H. Janitschek, Die Malerei, Berlin, 1890; K. von Liitzow, Geschichte des deutschen Kupferstichs und Holzschniits, vol. iv, ib. 1891; S. Beissel, Das . . Evangelienbuch im Dome zu Hildesiieim, Hildesheim, 1891; J. Strzygowski, Das Etschmiadzin Eiangeliar, Vienna, 1891; C. von Kobell, Miniaturen und lniiialen aus MSS. des 4.-16. Jahrhunderts, Munich, 1892; J. H. Middleton, Illuminated MSS. in Classical and Modern Times, London, 1892 (letterpress elaborate and comprehensive); W. von Hartel and F. Wickhoff, Die Wiener Genesis, Vienna, 1895; S. Berger, Les Manuels pour V illustration du Psautier, in M emoires de la societe des antiquites, 1898, lvii; G. E. Warner, Illuminated MSS., London, 1900; the illustrations of the Evangeliarium of Rossano are reproduced in the exact size of the originals by A. Munoz, Rome, 1907.
On the Biblia Pauperum consult: S. L. Sotheby, Principia typographica, London, 1858; J. T. Berjeau, Biblia pauperum, London, 1859; A. Camesina and G. Heider, Die bildlichen Darstellungen der Biblia pauperum . . in St. Florian, Vienna, 1863; E. la Roche, Die alteste Bilderbibel, die sogenannte Biblia pauperum, Basel, 1881; W. L. Schreiber, Manuel de I'amateur de la gravure au xve. siecle, 7 vols., Leipsic, 1891-1900; F. Laib and F. J. Schwarz, Biblia pauperum, Freiburg, 1899; E. M. Thompson, On a MS. of the Biblia pauperum, in Bibliotheca, iii, 1897; Biblia pauperum. Unicum der Heidelberger Universitats-Bibliothek, in 34 Lichtdrucktafeln und 4 Tafeln, Berlin, 1906.
BIBLES, POLYGLOT.
I. The Complutensian Polyglot. II. The Antwerp Polyglot.
III. The Paris Polyglot.
IV. The London Polyglot (Walton's Polyglot). V. Minor Polyglots.
Polyglot Bibles are editions of the Bible presenting the text in several languages side by side. The practical needs of the Jews after Hebrew ceased to be a living tongue led to the preparation
Of manuscripts giving, with the original Hebrew, translations or paraphrases in Aramaic, Greek, Arabic, Persian, and the languages of Europe. Like conditions in the Church were met in similar manner. Certain manuscripts of the New Testament in both Greek and Latin are mentioned in the article Bible-Text, II, 1, § 9. An edition in the original and in modern Greek was printed in 1638 at the instance of Cyril Lucar (see Bible Versions, B, VIII), and the needs of Syria, Egypt, and Armenia are met in like manner by editions still issued by Rome and by Protestant Bible Societies. The so-called glossaries (see Glosses, Biblical) and interlinear versions giving the Vulgate and the vernacular text of the Middle Ages may also be mentioned in this connection. And there are numerous modern copies of the Vulgate accompanied by an English, German, French, Spanish, or Italian translation.
The name Polyglot, however, can not strictly be given to editions presenting but two languages (Gk. polys = " many "), and, in common usage, is restricted to certain particular works, viz.:
I. The Complutensian Polyglot, one of the most noted and rarest of Biblical works, was undertaken under the supervision and at the expense of Cardinal Francisco Ximenez de Cisneros, archbishop of Toledo and chancellor of Castile (d. 1517), and was prepared by the most famous scholars of Spain, such as Demetrius Ducas of Crete, Antonio of Lebrija, Diego Lopez de Stunica, Ferdinand Nunez de Guzman, and Alphonso of Zamora. After years of laboi the work was printed at Alcala (Latin, Complutum) between 1513 and 1517, being finished only a few months before the death of the cardinal, and was published in 1520 with the sanction of Pope Leo X. It consists of six folio volumes, the first four including the Old Testament, the fifth the New Testament, and the sixth being a Hebrew-Chaldee lexicon with grammatical and other notes (printed separately as Alphonsi Zamorensis introductions artis grammaticoz Hebraicce, Alcala, 1526). The languages are (1) the Hebrew of the Old Testament; (2) the Targum of Onkelos;
(3) the Septuagint (here printed for the first time and with remarkable alterations of the manuscripts to make the text fit the Hebrew or the Latin);
(4) the Vulgate; (5) the Greek New Testament. Latin translations of the Targum and Septuagint are appended. The title-page and last page are given in reduced facsimile in Schaff's Companion to the Greek Testament (New York, 1885).
II. The Antwerp Polyglot (Biblia Regia) was printed at the expense of Philip II of Spain by the famous Antwerp printer Christophe Plantin (8 vols., folio, 1569-72). Benedictus Arias Montanus (see Arias, Benedictus) had charge of the work, with the help of Spanish, Belgian, and French scholars, among them Andre Maes, Guy le Fevre de la Boderie, and Francois Rapheleng. Volumes i-iv contain the Old Testament, vol. v the New; besides the original texts, the Vulgate, and the Septuagint with Latin translation, Aramaic targums of the Old Testament (with the exception of Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles) are given, with Latin translation; also the old Syriac (Peshito) version of the New Testament, lack-
.Bibles, Polyglot Bibliauder