RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Biblical Criticism Biblical History
members and consultors of this tribunal was greatlyaugmented, a large majority was conceded to the theologians as distinguished from the Biblical scholars; and the decisions rendered thus far have little or no interest for the scientific world, as they constitute simply a reaffirmation, without specified reasons, of the traditional positions. In the Church at present the trend of authoritative direction as regards the Scriptures is unfavorable to Biblical criticism, as is plain from the Syllabus of Modern Errors and the encyclical against Modernism issued by Pius X in 1907 (see Syllabus).
James F Driscoll.
Bibliography: For works on textual criticism see Bible Text; on the history of criticism consult: H. Cave, The Battle of the Standpoints; the Old Testament and the Higher Criticism, London, 1892 (brief and popular); H. S. Nash, The History of the Higher Criticism of the New Testament, New York, 1900, new ed., 1907 (an argument for scientific Bible study).
For exposition of methods consult C. A. Briggs, General Introduction to the Study of Holy Scripture, New York, 1899 (exhaustive); A. C. Zenos, Elements of the Higher Criticism, ib. 1895 (useful); F. Ast, Wissenschaftliche Darstellung der Grammatik, Hermeneutik und Kritik, Landshut, 1808; F. Hitzig, Begriff der Kritik am Alten Testament, Heidelberg, 1831; F. D. E. Schleiermacher, Ueber Begriff und Einteilung der philosophischen Kritik, in his Sammtliche Werke, III, iii, 387-404, Berlin, 1835; A. Kuenen, Critices et hermeneuticce librorum Novi Testa- %£nti lineamenta, Leyden, 1889; F. Blass, Hermeneutik und Kritik, in Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschajt, I, i, 127-128, Munich, 1891; F. Godet and others, Higher Criticism, Six Papers, New York, 1893; C. W Rishell, Higher Criticism, Cincinnati, 1893 (needs revision); E. Bernheim, Lehrbuch der historischen Methode, Leipsic, 1894; H. Hildebrand, Die hohere Bibelkritik, Paderborn, 1902; W. Moller, Biblical Criticism, London, 1903; G. W. Gilmore, Biblical Criticism, in The Monist, xiv (1904), 215 sqq.
For criticism of higher-critical methods and results consult: E. Bohl, Zum Gesetz und zum Zeugniss, eine Abwehr wider die neu-kritische Schriftforschung im Alten Testament, Vienna, 1883; O. Naumann, Wellhausen's Methode, Leipsic, 1886; F. Vigouroux, Les Livres saints et la critique rationaliste, 4 vols., Paris, 1886-90; J. J. Blunt, Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings of both the Old and the New Testaments, republished, New York, 1890; R. F. Horton, Revelation and the Bible, London, 1892; E. Rupprecht, Die Anschauung der kritischen Schule Wellhausens, Erlangen, 1893; A. Zahn, Ernste Blicke in den Wahn der modernen Kritik des Alten Testaments, Gutersloh, 1893; F. R. Beattie, Radical Criticism, an Exposition and Examination of the Radical Critical Theory, Chicago, 1894; L. Munhall, Anti-higher Criticism, New York, 1894 (extreme in its conservatism); S. Leathes, Claims of the Old Testament, ib. 1897; W. II. Green, General Introduction to the Old Testament, New York, 1899 (Dr. Green was the exponent of the most conservative type of Biblical study, and his strictures on higher criticism will be found in his Moses and the Prophets, 1883, The Hebrew Feasts in their Relation to Recent Critical Hypotheses, 1886, Higher Criticism of the Pentateuch, 1895, and Unity of the Book of Genesis, 1895); W. Moller, ^Ire the Critics Right? ib. 1903; F. D. Storey, Higher Criticism Cross-examined, Philadelphia, 1905; J. Orr, The Problem of the O. T, London, 1906 (conservative). For application and statement of critical methods consult: G. D'Eichtha], Melanges de critique biblique, Pans, 1896; Smith, OTJC, cf. R. Watts, The Newer Criticism and the Analogy of the Faith, Edinburgh, 1883 (Watts is a reply to Smith); J. P. Smyth, The Old Documents and the New Bible, London, 1890; T. K. Cheyne, Aids to the Devout Study of Criticism, ib. 1892; W. Sanday, Inspiration, ib. 1896 (advanced in dealing with the O. T., conservative as respects the N. T.) ; idem, Criticism of the Fourth Gospel, ib. 1905; W. F. Adeney, How to Read the Bible, ib. 1897 (a helpful handbook); G. A. Smith, Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old Testament, »>■ 1901; R. Balmforth, The Bible from the Standpoint of
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Higher Criticism, 2 vols., New York, 1904-05; T. W. Doane, Bible Myths and their Parallels in Other Religions, ib. 1905. On the interrelations of criticism, the Bible, and archeology consult: H. A. Harper, The Bible and Modern Discoveries, Boston, 1889; H. E. Ryle, Early Narratives of Genesis, London, 1892; T. Laurie, Assyrian Echoes of the Word, ib. 1894; A. H. Sayee, Higher Criticism and the Verdict of the Monuments, ib. 1894 (archeological, reaching the same conclusions as the critics, yet violently assailing them); W. St. C. Boscawen, Bible and the Monuments, ib. 1895; F. Hommel, Ancient Hebrew Tradition as Illustrated by the Monuments, ib. 1897 (the standpoint is similar to Sayce's); D. G. Hogarth, Authority and Archeology, ib. 1899 (in its Biblical parts sober, and a corrective of Sayce and Hommel); I. M. Price, Monuments and the Old Testament, Chicago, 1900; T. G. Pinches, The Old Testament in the Light of Historical Records and Legends of Assyria and Babylonia, London, 1902; Schrader, KAT.
BIBLICAL HISTORY. See Israel, History of, I.