THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
collection is H. A. Niemeyer, Collectio Confessionum in ecclesiis reformatis publicatarum, Leipsic, 1840. Consult also: M. Sehneckenburger, V ergleichende Darstellung des lulherischen und reformierten Lehrbegriffs, Stuttgart, 1S55; G. B. Winer, Comparative Darstellung des Lehrbegriffs der verschiedenen christlichen Kirchenparteien, Berlin, 1S66, Eng. transl., Edinburgh, 1873; and the various works on Symbolics, especially E. F. K. Muller, Symbolic, Erlangen, 1896. Attempts more or less successful have been made to present the Reformed system from the writings of its representative theologians. For examples of these consult: A. Schweizer, Die Glaubenslehre der evangelisch-reformierten Kirche, 2 vols., Zurich, 1844- 1S47; J. H. Scholten, De Leer der Jlervormde Kerk in hare Grondbegitiselen, Leyden, 1848, 2d ed., 1870; H. Heppe, Die Dogmatik der evangelisch-reformierten Kirche, Elberfeld, 1861; cf. B. de Moor, Commentarius perpetuus in Johannis Marckii compendium theologim christians, 7 vols., Leyden, 1761.
For the " principle " of Calvinism consult: H. Voigt, Fundamentaldogmatik, pp. 397-480, Gotha, 1874; W Hastie, The Theology of the Reformed Church in its Fundamental Principles, Edinburgh, 1904; cf. Scholten and Schneckenburger, ut sup., where lists of the literature are given. A good history of the Reformed theology is still a desideratum. Sketches have been given in: W Gass, Geschichte der protestantischen Dogmatik, Berlin, 1854-67; G. Frank, Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie, 3 vols., Leipsic, 1862-75; I. A. Dorner, Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie, Munich, 1867, Eng. transl., 2 vols., Edinburgh, 1871. Contributions have been made by: C. 11- Pfaff, Introductio in historiam theologim literariam, pp. 258 sqq., Tubingen, 1724; B. Pictet, Theologia Christiana, part iii., Leyden, 1733-34; J. G. Walch, Bibliotheca theologica selecta, i. 211 sqq., Jena, 1757-68; A. M. Toplady, Historic Proof of the Doctrinal Calvinism of the Church of England, London, 1774; A. Ypey (Ijpeij), Beknopte letterkundige geschiedenis der system, godgeleerd (Utrecht?), 1793-98; A. Schweizer, Die protestantischen C entraldogmen in ihrer Entwicklung innerhalb der reformierten Kirche, Zurich, 1854; J. H. Scholten, ut sup., i. 67 sqq.; H. Heppe, Die confessionelle Entwicklung der altprotestantischen Kirche Deutschlands, Marburg, 1854; idem, Dogmatik des deutschen Protestantismus im sechzehnten Jahrhundert, Gotha, 1857; W. Cunningham, The Reformers and the Theology of the Reformation, Edinburgh, 1862; idem, Historical Theology, 2 vols., ib. 1864; J. H. A. Ebrard, Christliche Dogmatik, i. 44, Konigsberg, 1863; J.Walker, The Theology and Theologians of Scotland, Edinburgh, 1S72; C. Sepp, Het Godgeleerd onderwiis in Nederland . 16een 17e eeuw, Leyden, 1873-74; A. Milroy, The Church of Scotland, Past and Present, ed. R. H. Story, London, n.d. ; idem, Scottish Theologians and Preachers, 1610- 163S, Edinburgh, 1891. Consult also on the general subject: A. Kuyper, Calvinism, New York, 1890 (an admirable statement, summing up a series of brochures in Dutch); J. A. Froude, Calvinism, London, 1871, and in Short Studies on Great Subjects, second series, ib. 1871; J. L. Girardeau, Calvinism and Evangelical Arminianism, Columbia, 1893; B. B. Warfield, The Significance of the Westminster Standards as a Creed, New York, 1898; E. W. Smith, The Creed of Presbyterians, ib. 1901. Some of the chief Calvinistic dogmatists find mention in the text; a list of the more important is given in Heppe and Schweizer, ut sup., at the beginning. The series may be fairly represented by the following names: Calvin, Ursinus, Zanchius, Polanus, Alsted, Voetius, Burman, Turretin, Heidegger, Van Mastircht. The brief compends of Bucanus (Inatitutiones theologica, Geneva, 1609), Wollebius (Compendium theologim, Cambridge, 1648), Ames (Medulla theologica, Amsterdam, 1656, Eng. transl., London, 1642), and Marck (Compendium theologim, Amsterdam, 1705) present the system in briefest form. The more recent theologians are indicated in the text.
CAMALDOLITES (called also Camaldolensians, Camaldolese, Camaldules, Camaldulians, from the monastery at Camaldoli near Arezzo): A religious order springing from the movement for monastic reform which also gave rise to the congregations of Cluny and Lorraine, with which it is allied in
some respects, though it differs from them in others. The Italian movement is wholly independent of the French, and began later — not before the close of the tenth century, after the Cluniac monks had already reformed numerous monasteries in upper and central Italy. It was more enthusiastic than the French, and had for its object not so much the strict enforcement of the Benedictine rule as the commendation, in opposition to the moral corruption which was even deeper in the south than in the north, of the severest form of the ascetic life, that of hermits. This recalls the Greek monastic originators; and the fact is easily explicable by the strong influence of Greek traditions in Italy, especially in the south.
St. Romuald is the most prominent, but by no means the only, representative of this idea. Before or with him were working for the same end the Armenian hermit Simeon, St. Dominic of Foligno, the founder of Fonte Avellana, and the Greek Nilos of Rossano. Romuald was born at Ravenna, of the ducal family there, about 950. He was startled out of a worldly life when his father Sergius killed a kinsman in a duel arising out of a dispute over a piece of property, and retired to the monastery of S. Apollinare in Classe near Ravenna to do penance forty days on his father's behalf. His ascetic zeal was not satisfied here, although the monastery had been reformed not long before by Majolus of Cluny. He began to live a hermit's life near Venice, continued it in Catalonia, and
then returned to the neighborhood
St. Romu- of Ravenna. Wherever he went, a
aid. group of disciples formed around him;
but as soon as they were sufficiently numerous in any one place, he gave them into the charge of a superior and left them. Most of these colonies were in central Italy; the three most important were Val di Castro, Monte Sitrio in Umbria, and Camaldoli, where he established a monastery in 1012. His organization shows a combination of the Western cenobite system with the Eastern anchorite life. The brothers lived in single cells, with an oratory in the midst. The whole Psalter was recited every day; the only written memorial left by Romuald was an exposition of the Psalms, which, however, is taken almost word for word from that of Cassiodorus. Meals were taken in common, but they were exceedingly scanty; the brothers went barefoot and wore their hair and beards long; the rule of silence was strictly observed. They busied themselves with agriculture and various handicrafts, those near the sea especially with the making of baskets and nets. We meet for the first time in these hermit colonies with famuli, the later lay brothers, who relieved the monks of the more burdensome household duties. The rule of fasting and silence was not so strict for them, but apparently, as at Fonte Avellana, they had to take lifelong monastic vows. This institution was borrowed by Gualberto, a disciple of Romuald's, for his order of Yallombrosa and further developed by him (see Gualberto, Giovanni). Romuald's activity was not confined to the founding of these communities. He made a deep impression upon the most varied