THE NEW SCHAFF-HERZOG
at the foot, with the writing underneath. The inscriptions were either cut with a chisel or other sharp tool, scratched with a sharp point, painted with a brush, or composed in mosaic. These inscriptions offer most trustworthy and striking evidence of the mode of thought, faith, and hope of the primitive Christians, especially in regard to death, the grave, and the resurrection (see Inscriptions; Painting).
2. The Chambers and Passages: In these the presence has already been noted of tables, benches, and chairs for the observance of the commemorations of the dead. The dimensions of such tables as have been discovered imply that the number of participants was small. While such furniture is practically absent from the Roman Catacombs, where wood must accordingly have been used, several tables of more durable material have been found in North African burial-places. The galleries and chambers of the catacombs also contained receptacles for the materials used in mixing mortar for closing up the tombs. Those which have been preserved, made usually of clay, with incrustations of mortar and lime still upon them, may have been used either for this purpose or on sanitary grounds, to counteract the effluvia of the place. Lighting arrangements are found here too, although the galleries must have been in comparative darkness, to judge from the way in which Jerome quotes Ps. lv. 15 and Vergil, /Eneid, ii. 755 in connection with the memory of his visit to the Roman Catacombs. As the arcosolia were frequently ornamented with paintings in their vaults and lunettes, and the loculi on their exterior side, so also the chambers and less frequently the galleries of the catacombs were decorated in the same way. No doubt the structures above ground connected with the cemeteries were painted in much more numerous cases than the scanty remains extant at the present day would lead one to suppose.
(NlKOLAUS MtJLLER.) Bibliography: J. Townshend, Catalogue of Books Relating to the Disposal of Bodies, New York, 1887. On the general question consult: F. Piper, Einleitung in die monumentale Theologie, Gotha, 1867; J. Wilpert, Principienfragen der christlichen Archaologie, Freiburg, 1889; F. X. Kraus, Ueber Begriff, Umfang und Geschichte der christlichen Archaologie, Freiburg, 1879; idem, Real-Encyklopadie der christlichen Alterthumer, 2 vols., ib. 1880-86; V. Schultze, Archaologische Studien, Vienna, 1880; Die Katakomben, die altchristlichen Grabstatten, Leipsic, 1882; R. Grousset, Etude sur I'histoire des sarcophages chretiens, Athens, 1S85; L. Wagner, Manners, Customs and Observances, London, 1885; A. Hasenclever, Der altchristliche Graberschmuck, Brunswick, 1886; H. Marucchi, Elements d'archeologie chretienne, Paris, 1900; Neander, Christian Church, vols, i.-iv., consult Index, s.v. "Burial"; Schaff, Christian Church, ii. 286-310, 380-385; Moeller, Christian Church, i. 279-283.
For burial in Palestine consult: T. Tobler, Golgatha, pp. 201 sqq., et passim, St. Gall, 1851; idem, Zwei Biicher Topographie von Jerusalem, ii. 227 sqq., Berlin, 1854; J. N. Sepp, Jerusalem und das heilige Land, i. 273 sqq., Schaffhausen, 1873; Surrey of Western Palestine, London, 18S1 sqq.; Mittheilungen und Nachrichten des deutschen Palastina-Vereins, Leipsic, 1895 sqq.; Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, passim; C. Mommert, Golgotha und das heilige Grab zu Jerusalem, Leipsic, 1900. For Syrian burial consult: F. E. C. Dietrich, Zwei sidonische Inschriften, pp. 11 sqq., Marburg, 1855; C. J. M. de Vogue", Notice archeologique sur les monuments encore existants en Terre Sainte, Paris, 1870; idem, Syrie centrale, Paris, 1865-77.
For North Africa consult: A. L. Delattre, Inscriptions chretiennes provenant de la basilique de Damous-el-Karita a Carthage, Constantine, 1863; idem, Les Tombeaux puniques de Carthage, Lyons, 1890; idem, Antiquites chretiennes, Paris, 1900; R. M. Smith and E. A. Porcher, History of the Recent Discoveries at Cyrene, London, 1864; Neroutsos-Bey, Notice sur les fouilles recentes . , pp.
26 sqq., 48, Alexandria, 1875; idem, L'Ancienne Alexandrie, pp. 38 sqq., 53-54, 61, Paris, 1888; Pierre Gavault, in Bibliotheque d'archeologie Africaine, part 2, 1897; S. Gsell, Recherches archeologiques en Algerie, Paris, 1893; idem, Les Monuments antiques de I'Algerie, ib. 1899; M. de Bock, Materiaux pour servir a I'archeologie de I'Egypte chretienne, St. Petersburg, 1901.
For Asia Minor consult: J. T. Wood, Discoveries at Ephesus, pp. 12 sqq., London, 1877; F. Cumont, Melanges d'archeologie et d'histoire, xv. (1895) 245 sqq.; W. M. Ramsay, Cities and Bishoprics of Phrygia, vol. i., parts 1, 2, Oxford, 1895-97; idem, in Journal of Hellenic Studies, passim.
On the Greek Islands consult: L. Ross, Reisen auf den griechischen Inseln, iii. 145-151, Stuttgart, 1845; L. P. di Cesnola, Cyprus, New York, 1877; C. Bayet, in Bulletin de correspondance Hellenique, ii. 347-359, Paris, 1878.
On the catacombs at Rome the literature is enormous. The following is a selection: G. B. de Rossi, Roma sotterranea, 3 vols., Rome, 1864-77 (the one great book, largely reproduced in English in J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow, Roma sotterranea, 2 vols., London, 1879, an authorized summary); with De Rossi's monumental work should be mentioned the periodical edited by him, Bollettino di archeologia cristiana, Rome, 1863 sqq. (the repository of reports of discovery and decipherment); F. X. Kraus, Roma Sotterranea, Freiburg, 1879 (based on De Rossi and Northcote and Brownlow); S. d'Agincourt, Histoire de Vart par les monuments, 6 vols., Paris, 1809-23; W. Rostell, in E. Z. Platner et al., Beschreibung der Stadt Rom, i. 355-416, Stuttgart, 1830; G. Marti, Architettura della Roma sotterranea cristiana, Rome, 1844; C. Maitland, Church in the Catacombs, London, 1847; L. Perret, Les Catacombes de Rome, 6 vols., Paris, 1851—55 (plates are valuable, the text is superseded); W. I. Kip, Catacombs of Rome, New York, 1854; D. de Richemont, Les Catacombes de Rome, Paris, 1870; P. Allard, Rome souterraine, Paris, 1874; J. H. Parker, Archaeology of Rome, parts ix., x., xii., London, 1877 (a standard work); T. Roller, Les Catacombes de Rome, Paris, 1881; W. R. Brownlow, Cemetery of St. Priscilla and Recent Discoveries, London, 1892; M. Armellini, Le Catacombe romane, Rome, 1880; idem, Gli antichi cimiteri cristiani di Roma e d'ltalia, ib. 1893; R. Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations of Ancient Rome, Index " cemeteries," Boston, 1897; A. Weber, Die romischen Katakomben, Regensburg, 1900.
For cemeteries in Italy outside Rome consult: G. B. Pasquini, Vn antico cimitero. Sienna, 1831; idem, Relazione di un antico cimitero , Montipulciano, 1833; C. F. Bel-
lermann, Die altesten christlichen Begrabnisstatten, Hamburg, 1839 (at Naples); G. Scherillo, Le Catacombe Napolitane, Naples, 1870; F. Liverani, Le Catacombe . di Chiusi, Sienna, 1872; T. Roller, Die Katakomben von San Gennaro . in Neapel, Jena, 1877; V. Schultze, Die Katakomben von San Gennaro, ib. 1877; F. Colonna, Scoperto di antichita in Napoli, 1876-1897, Naples, 1898.
For Sicily, Malta, and Sardinia consult : G. P. Badger, Description of Malta and Sardinia, pp. 255-260, Malta, 1838; A. A. Caruana, Recent Discoveries at Notabile, Malta, 1881; idem, A Hypogeum . , ib. 1884; B. Lupus, Die Stadt Syracus im Alterthum, pp. 271, 275, 323-327, Strasburg, 1887; V. Strazzulla, in Archivio storico Siciliano, xxi. 104-188, Palermo, 1896; J. Fuhrer, in AM A, 1 Klasse, xx. (1897), part 3; idem, Forschungen zur Sicilia sotterranea, Munich, 1897 (a work of the first importance).
For England: Caroline B. Southey, Chapters on Churchyards, London, 1S70; E. E. Jarrett, Lessons on the Churchyard, ib. 1880; Mrs. B. Holmes, London Burial Grounds, ib. 1896.
Consult also: J. B. D. Cochet, La Normandie souterraine ou Notices sur des cimetieres romains et des cimetiires francs, Dieppe, 1855; idem. Sepultures gauloises, romaines, franques et normandes, 2 vols., ib. 1857.
The original article by Muller, in Hauck-Herzog, RE, x. 794-877f, is a learned treatise and should be consulted by advanced students.