RELIGIOUS ENCYCLOPEDIA
Charlemagrne Charles "V.
of holy deeds, yet they are by no means necessary. Christians having fellowship with Christ ought always to have him present in their hearts and to be able to look beyond the sensible into the spiritual. The Scriptures and not images are the proper outward means for gaining acquaintance with Christ. The Synod of Frankfort (794), called and controlled by Charlemagne, condemned the adoration and service of images (see Images and Image-worship, II.). The negotiations between Charlemagne and the empress Irene looking toward the marriage of the two sovereigns and the reuniting of the East and the West, which were brought to an end by the overthrow of the empress (802), no doubt had in view the world-wide unification of ecclesiastical as well as civil administration.
Charlemagne paid little heed to moral or ecclesiastical considerations in contracting and annulling his marriages, and had no idea of limiting himself to one wife at a time. Besides several regular marriages, he sustained semimarital relations with a number of women, whose children he recognized and provided for.
A. H. Newman.
Bibliography: A convenient list of sources is given in Potthast, Wegweiser, pp. 192-194, 1234-35. The Opera Omnia, including letters, are in MPL, xcvii.-xcviii. The Capitularia, ed. G. H. Pertz, are in MGH,Leg., i (1835), 32-194, and the Leges Langobardorum are in the same, iv (1868), 485-514. Other important early sources are given in MGH, Script., i.-ii., 1826-29. Several short documents are given in the original in S. Mathews, Select Mediaeval Documents, pp. 10-14, Boston, 1892; a capitulary is in Eng. transl. in E. F. Henderson, Documents, pp. 189-200; several documents are in Thatcher and Mc- Neal, Source Book, pp. 35-38. Excellent illustrative extracts are given in English, with a bibliography, in Robinson, European History, pp. 126-149.
The fundamental life is the Vita Karoli Magni by Einhard: it is in ASB, Jan., ii. 877-888; also, ed. Pertz, in MGH, Script, ii (1829), 443-463; ed. G. Waitz, in Script, rer. Germ., Hanover, 1880; in MPL, xcvii. 25-62; a good edition is by A. Holder, Freiburg, 1882; there is an Eng. transl. by S. E. Turner, New York, 1880, and in Thatcher and McNeal, Source Book, pp. 38-48. Modern treatments of the life are: P. A. Thijm, Karl der Grosse und seine Zeit, Miinster, 1868; E. L. Cutts, Charlemagne and his Times, London, 1887; J. I. Mombert, Hist, of Charles the Great, London, 1888 (scholarly, discusses the sources); J. I. Humbert, Hist, of Charles the Great, ib. 1889; R. Foss, Karl der Grosse, Giitersloh, 1897; T. Hodgkin, Charles the Great, New York, 1897; H. W C. Davis, Charlemagne, New York, 1900.
Shorter treatments or discussions of various phases of his life and activities are: A. Ebert, Allgemeine Geschichte der Literatur des Mittelalters, ii. 3-108, Leipsic, 1880;
A. West, Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools, New York, 1893; E. F. Henderson, Germany in the Middle Ages, pp. 56 sqq., New York, 1894; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. ii., book iv., chaps. 4-7, vol. iii., book v., chap. 1, London, 1894-95; .T. A. Ketterer, Karl der Grosse und die Kirche, Munich, 1898; C. L. Wells, The Age of Charlemaqne, New York, 1898; J. Nover, Karl der Grosse und seine PaJadine, Glogau, 1900; J. Bryce, The Holy Roman Empire, especially chap, v., New York, 1904; ,T. B. MuUinger, The Schools of Charles the Great, ib. 1904; 11. Prutz, The Age of Charlemagne, vol. viii. of History of All Nations, ed. J. H. Wright, Philadelphia, 1905; Milman, Latin Christianity, book iv., chap. Aii., book v., chap i.; Neander, Christian Church, vol. iii., passim; Schaff, Christian Church, iv. 236-249; Moeller, Christian Church, ii. 90-98. Consult also: S. Abel and
B. Simson, Jahrbiicher des frdnkischen Reichs, 2 vols., Leipsic, 1883; Wattenbach, DGQ; and the literature under Alcuin.
CHARLES V.
Charles's Policy. The Diet of Worms (§ 1
Political Events Favor the Protestant Cause (§ 2).
Attempts at Religious Unity. Diet of Augsburg (§ 3).
Efforts for a General Council (§ 4).
Renewal of Hostilities ; Failure to Secure Unity (§ 5).
Abdication (§ 6).
Charles V., emperor of the Holy Roman Empire 1519-56 and king of Spain (as Charles I.), was born at Ghent Feb. 24, 1500; d. at the monastery of San Jeronimo de Yuste (124 m. by rail w.s.w. of Madrid), in Estramadura, Sept. 21, 1558. He was the son of Philip the Handsome of Austria and Joan of Aragon, grandson on the paternal side of the emperor Maximilian I. and Mary of Burgundy, on the maternal side of Ferdinand and Isabella, who had united Aragon and Castile into the kingdom of Spain. In 1516 he succeeded Ferdinand and Isabella as king of Spain, and ruler of the Netherlands, of the kingdom of Naples (including Sicily and Sardinia), Milan, Luxemburg, and Franche-Comte. As a member of the house of Hapsburg he was archduke of Austria. Thus as a youth of sixteen he was by far the most powerful sovereign in Europe. In 1519 he was elected emperor in competition with Francis I. of France, largely through the influence of Frederick of Saxony (see Frederick III., the Wise).
From the beginning of liis reign as king of Spain Charles was beset with difficulties. It required the most strenuous efforts of Ximenes, chief coimselor of Ferdinand, to prevent open revolt I. Charles's in Spain, where Charles's right to the Policy. succession was considered doubtful
The Diet and where, because of his Dutch trainof Worms, ing and Dutch counselors, he was impopular. He entered upon his imperial administration amid the throes of the Protestant revolution, threatened in the West by the jealousy and ambition of the king of France and in the East by the attacks of the Ottoman Turks, who were encouraged by France to do their worst. The necessity of protecting the Netherlands, his Italian and other Western possessions from French voracity, and the Eastern domains of the house of Hapsburg from Turkish aggression, lay at the basis of Charles's policy in ecclesiastical matters. Immediately after his coronation as emperor at Aachen (Oct., 1520) the necessity of vigorous measures for the suppression of Lutheranism became manifest. The Diet of Worms followed (Jan. 28-May 25, 1521), but Charles, influenced by his confessor, Quintana, and having a wholesome dread of civil war, refused to deal as summarily with Luther as the papal nuncio, Girolamo Aleandro, wished. The Edict of Worms, representing the extent to which Charles was prepared to go in the direction of coercion, prohibited the printing, sale, and reading of Luther's books, and the giving of comfort and support to him; but the safeconduct under which he had come to Worms was respected (see Worms).
On May 8 a secret treaty was made at Worms between the emperor and the pope against France. Henry VIII. of England joined the alliance, hopmg to acquire territory lost to France and to increase
Charles V.